Red pigments are materials, usually made from minerals, used to create the red colors in painting and other arts. The color of red and other pigments is determined by the way it absorbs certain parts of the spectrum of visible light and reflects the others. The brilliant opaque red ofvermillion, for example, results because vermillion reflects the major part of red light, but absorbs the blue, green and yellow parts of white light.[1]
Red pigments historically were often made from iron oxides, such ashematite. These pigments have been found in cave paintings in France dating to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC. The bright scarlet color,vermilion, was made by pulverizing the mineralcinnabar. A synthetic Vermilion was created in the 9th century with a compound ofmercury andsulfur. At present the great majority of red pigments are made artificially, rather than taken from nature.[2]
More recently, pigments were created from dyestuffs from mineral and animal sources, The best known iscochineal, made from insects. RedLake pigments are famous for their translucency. To paint richly-closed red fabrics, Medieval painters often used several layers of translucent lake colors over a base of lake mixed with lead white or vermillion.[3]
Red ochre takes its reddish colour from the mineralhematite, which is an anhydrous iron oxide, and the main ingredient ofrust. It was one of the earliest pigments used by man. Hand prints made by using red ochre have been found in thePech Merle cave in Southern France. They date to between 16,000 and 25,000 BC.
Vermilion is a very ancient red-orange pigment, made by pulverizing the mineralcinnabar. Its defect is that it is liable to darken with age, and sometimes develops a purple-red surface sheen, as seen in some paintings byPaolo Uccello, including the bridles of the horses depicted in "The Battle of San Romano" .[4]
Vermilion also has a role in Indian culture.Hindu women wear a dab of vermilion on their forehead to indicate they are married.
Cadmium red is a byproduct ofzinc ore. About half of thecadmium produced in the world has been used for making batteries for automobiles, and a large part of the other half is used for making a family of bright pigments, including cadmium orange and cadmium yellow. It is known for maintaining its brightness.[5]
Alizarin crimson is a vivid red pigment, inclined slightly toward purple, which was most widely used as a dye. It came from theRubia tinctorum plant, commonly known asMadder. It has been found on fabrics in ancient Egyptian tombs, and its production in Europe was encouraged byCharlemagne for the early European textile industry.
Chinese red, a bright red color also known as Han Red for theHan dynasty. It had the same primary ingredient as the western colorvermilion.[6] It was used in China to color murals, architecture, clothing, and especially lacquerware. The Empress of China traveled in red carriages, and wore red costumes. In theMing dynasty, (1368-1644), the color was featured in all official ceremonies, including sacrificial offerings, weddings, and departures of expeditions.[7]
Red lac, also calledred lake,crimson lake orcarmine lake, was an important red pigment in Renaissance and Baroque art. Since it was translucent, thin layers of red lac were built up or glazed over a more opaque, dark color to create a particularly deep and vivid color.
Unlikevermilion or redochre, made from minerals, redlake pigments are made by mixing organic dyes, made from insects or plants, with whitechalk oralum. Red lac was made from the gumlac, the dark red resinous substance secreted by various scale insects, particularly theLaccifer lacca from India.[8]Carmine lake was made from thecochineal insect from Central and South America,Kermes lake came from a different scale insect,Kermes vermilio, which thrived on oak trees around the Mediterranean. Other red lakes were made from therose madder plant and from thebrazilwood tree.
Red lake pigments were an important part of the palette of 16th-century Venetian painters, particularlyTitian, but they were used in all periods.[9] Since the red lakes were made from organic dyes, they tended to be fugitive, becoming unstable and fading when exposed to sunlight.
Cochineal is a deep purplish-red color, made from insects, which is also used as a dye and to color food products.[10]Cochineal was produced by the Incas to dye cotton from 700 BC. It was also used as a cosmetic and a pigment. The insects were raised on large plantations before the arrival of the Spanish. Three hundred kilos of insects could be raised on each hectare of the plantation. The Spanish conquerors appreciated the value of the color and arranged the export of hundreds of tons to Europe. The production of cochineal was also introduced in theCanary Islands and inPoland. It largely disappeared after the invention of synthetic dyes and pigments, but has resumed more recently because of the lack of toxicity and environmental benefits of the product.[11]
A common characteristic of Red Lake pigments is their translucency. especially in oil painting. Painters often created more vivid colors by adding layers of red lakes over less transparent underfloors, particularly painting over lake colors mixed withlead white or vermilion. A weakness of lake pigments is their tendency to fade because of the action of light.[12]
Lake pigments, unlike most other reds, are made from vegetal rather than mineral sources.Madder is produced made from a plant,Rubia tinctorum. They are the resultprecipitating adye with aninertbinder, ormordant, usually ametallic salt.
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Minium is a bright orange-red pigment that was often used in the Middle Ages for Illuminated manuscripts. It was made by roastingwhite lead pigment.[13]
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This is a list of red inorganic pigments, both natural and synthetic:[14]
Arsenic pigments
Cadmium pigments
Cerium pigments
Iron oxide pigments
Lead pigments
Mercury pigments