Red meat is a good source of protein, iron, zinc, and vitamins B1, B2, B6, and B12.[5] According to theInternational Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), unprocessed red meat probably causes cancer, particularlycolorectal cancer.[6] Studies have also linked red meat with higher risks ofcardiovascular disease[7] andtype 2 diabetes.[7][8] If meat isprocessed, such as by salting, curing, or smoking, health risks further increase. Processed meat is known to cause colorectal cancer.[6] TheWorld Cancer Research Fund recommends minimizing consumption of processed meat and limiting red meat to no more than three servings per week.[3]
Inculinary contexts, the termred meat is used more loosely to refer to meat that is red when raw.[9]
Duck can have a red appearance. However, studies on the health effects of red meat do not consider duck or any type ofpoultry to be red meat.
In the context of nutritional science, red meat is defined as meat obtained from mammals, includingbeef,pork,lamb,mutton,veal,venison, andgoat.[1][2][3] Some sources also specify that the meat must be muscle meat, as opposed toorgan meat.[1][13] Red meat does not necessarily appear red in color.[4]
Inculinary contexts, the termred meat is used more loosely to refer to meat that is red when raw.[9] The term is used to refer to adult or "gamey" mammals, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white. Most poultry is white.[14]Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French:viandes noires'dark meats').[15] The redness of meat comes from itsmyoglobin content.[16]
Some cuts of pork are considered white under the gastronomic definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. TheNational Pork Board haspositioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.[17][18]
Ostrich,emu, andrhea meat are sometimes referred to as types of red meat or "alternatives to red meat" .[19][20] However, their nutritional characteristics differ significantly from the characteristics of other types of red meat.[20]
Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk oftype 2 diabetes (T2D),cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer (particularlycolorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality.[24][25][26][27] The body of epidemiological data showing their associations with T2D, CVD, and cancer is large and consistent.[27]
The associations are strongest forprocessed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.[28]
A 2025 umbrella review found that a high intake of red meat is associated with an increased all-cause mortality risk.[29]
There are no long-termrandomized controlled trials that have investigated red meat consumption and disease outcomes, and such trials are unlikely to be conducted due to ethical, financial and practical reasons.[30][27] Most of the data on red meat and health effects is from long-term epidemiological studies.[27][31]
The Working Group found "limited" epidemiological evidence linking unprocessed red meat tocolorectal,pancreatic, andprostate cancer.[34]: 501 Additionally, it found "strong mechanistic evidence" that unprocessed red meat is carcinogenic.[34]: 499 Mechanistic evidence is evidence of plausible biological pathways in which a substance could cause cancer.[34]: 23–24 For instance, studies had found that participants who had recently eaten red meat had higher levels of carcinogenicN-nitroso compounds in their guts and feces.[34]: 470
For processed red meat, evidence of harm is stronger. The IARC classifiedprocessed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causescolorectal cancer."[32]
The IARC concluded that if unprocessed red meat does cause cancer, there is a 17% higher risk of colorectal cancer for every 100 g of unprocessed red meat consumed daily.[32] It found a 18% higher risk of colorectal cancer for every 50 g of processed red meat consumed daily.[32]
A 2021 umbrella review reported an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.[40]
A 2022 Burden of Proof study analyzed data from epidemiological evidence (not mechanistic evidence) and found that each 100 g of unprocessed red meat consumed per day would increase colorectal cancer risk by at least 6% and breast cancer by at least 3%.[41] The Burden of Proof methodology was later criticized for systematically under-estimating levels of risk.[42]
Heme iron in red meat has been associated with increased colorectal cancer risk.[43] The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund have commented that "haem iron, which is present at high levels in red meat, has been shown to promote colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compound."[31]N-Glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) has also been suggested as a mechanism.[44][45][46]
Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking
A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds,polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), andheterocyclic amines (HCAs).[47] Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.[48]
Meats cooked at high temperatures, especially above 300 °F (149 °C) (as in grilling or pan frying), or that are cooked for a long time tend to form more HCAs. Cooking methods that expose meat to smoke contribute to PAH formation.[49] Using a microwave oven to cook meat prior to exposure to high temperatures can substantially reduce HCA formation by reducing the time that meat must be in contact with high heat to finish cooking.[49]
Meat that is cooked longer and at higher temperatures is associated with a 4.62 times greater risk of breast cancer compared with rare or medium-done meat.[50][51]
In 2020, theNational Heart Foundation of New Zealand Expert Nutrition Policy (ENP) issued a position statement that concluded that high consumption of red meat increases risk of heart disease and stroke by 16%.[52][55]
Processed and unprocessed red meat consumption is a risk factor for developingtype 2 diabetes across populations.[56][57][58]
A 2017 review found that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consumingwhole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes.[59] One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".[60] A 2022 umbrella review found that consuming an additional 100g of red meat per day was associated with a 17% increased risk oftype 2 diabetes.[61]
A 2025 review found that nutritional studies on red meat consumption funded by the meat industry reported favorable (20.7%) or neutral (79.3%) cardiovascular outcomes for red meat intake. This was in opposition to independent studies that reported unfavourable (73.3%) or neutral (26.7%) cardiovascular outcomes.[65] The review concluded that "most studies without conflicts of interest with the red meat industry suggested an unfavorable effect of unprocessed red meat consumption on risk factors for cardiovascular disease".[65]
In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (230 g) of fish each week.[66][67] In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations.[66] The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.[66]
^abShi, Wenming; Huang, Xin; Schooling, C. Mary; Zhao, Jie V. (21 July 2023). "Red meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis".European Heart Journal.44 (28):2626–2635.doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad336.ISSN1522-9645.PMID37264855.
^IARC Working Group on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans (2018). "1. EXPOSURE DATA".Red Meat and Processed Meat. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Vol. 114. International Agency for Research on Cancer.ISBN978-92-832-0180-9. Retrieved23 September 2025.
^abHorbańczuk, Olaf K.; Wierzbicka, Agnieszka (1 September 2016). "Technological and nutritional properties of ostrich, emu, and rhea meat quality".Journal of Veterinary Research.60 (3):279–286.doi:10.1515/jvetres-2016-0043.ISSN2450-8608.
^Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q (September 2021). "Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review".Food Chem (Review).356 129697.doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697.PMID33838606.
^Liang, M.; Wu, J.; Li, H.; Zhu, Q. (2024). "N-glycolylneuraminic acid in red meat and processed meat is a health concern: A review on the formation, health risk, and reduction".Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety.32 (2) e13314.doi:10.1111/1541-4337.13314.PMID38389429.
^Jeyakumar A, Dissabandara L, Gopalan V (April 2017). "A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis".Journal of Gastroenterology.52 (4):407–418.doi:10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x.PMID27913919.S2CID20865644.
^Zheng, W.; Gustafson, D. R.; Sinha, R.; Cerhan, J. R.; Moore, D.; Hong, C. P.; Anderson, K. E.; Kushi, L. H.; Sellers, T. A.; Folsom, A. R. (18 November 1998). "Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer".Journal of the National Cancer Institute.90 (22):1724–1729.doi:10.1093/jnci/90.22.1724.ISSN0027-8874.PMID9827527.
^Giosuè A, Calabrese I, Riccardi G, Vaccaro O, Vitale M (September 2022). "Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies".Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice.191 110071.doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071.PMID36067917.S2CID252107061.
^Li C, Bishop TR, Imamura F, Sharp SJ, Pearce M, Brage S, Ong KK, Ahsan H, Bes-Rastrollo M, Beulens JW, den Braver N, Byberg L, Canhada S, Chen Z, Chung HF, Cortés-Valencia A, Djousse L, Drouin-Chartier JP, Du H, Du S, Duncan BB, Gaziano JM, Gordon-Larsen P, Goto A, Haghighatdoost F, Härkänen T, Hashemian M, Hu FB, Ittermann T, Järvinen R, Kakkoura MG, Neelakantan N, Knekt P, Lajous M, Li Y, Magliano DJ, Malekzadeh R, Le Marchand L, Marques-Vidal P, Martinez-Gonzalez MA, Maskarinec G, Mishra GD, Mohammadifard N, O'Donoghue G, O'Gorman D, Popkin B, Poustchi H, Sarrafzadegan N, Sawada N, Schmidt MI, Shaw JE, Soedamah-Muthu S, Stern D, Tong L, van Dam RM, Völzke H, Willett WC, Wolk A, Yu C (2024)."Meat consumption and incident type 2 diabetes: an individual-participant federated meta-analysis of 1·97 million adults with 100 000 incident cases from 31 cohorts in 20 countries".The Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology.12 (9):619–630.doi:10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00179-7.PMID39174161.
^Aas, Anne-Marie; Axelsen, Mette; Churuangsuk, Chaitong; Hermansen, Kjeld; Kendall, Cyril W. C.; Kahleova, Hana; Khan, Tauseef; Lean, Michael E. J.; Mann, Jim I.; Pedersen, Eva; Pfeiffer, Andreas; Rahelić, Dario; Reynolds, Andrew N.; Risérus, Ulf; Rivellese, Angela Albarosa; Salas-Salvadó, Jordi; Schwab, Ursula; Sievenpiper, John L.; Thanopoulou, Anastasia; Uusitupa, Emeritus Matti (April 2023)."Evidence-based European recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes".Diabetologia.66 (6):965–985.doi:10.1007/s00125-023-05894-8.PMID37069434.
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