TheRed Fort (Lal Qila in Hindi;Hindi pronunciation:[laːl'qɪlaː]) is an historicMughal fort located in theOld Delhi area ofDelhi, India. It served as the main residence of theMughal emperors. Commissioned by EmperorShah Jahan on the 12th of May 1639, the fort was constructed following his decision to shift the Mughal capital fromAgra to Delhi. Originally adorned in red and white, the fort's design is attributed toUstad Ahmad Lahori, the architect of theTaj Mahal. The Red Fort is a prominent example of Mughal architecture from Shah Jahan's reign, combining Persian and Indian architectural styles.
During theinvasion byNadir Shah of theAfsharid Empire in 1739, the fort was plundered and stripped of its artwork and jewels. Following theIndian Rebellion of 1857, many of its marble structures were demolished by the British, although the defensive walls remained largely intact. The fort was later repurposed as a military garrison.
On 15 August 1947, the first Prime Minister of India,Jawaharlal Nehru, hoisted theIndian flag above theLahori Gate, the main entrance of the Red Fort. Since then, thePrime Minister of India has ceremonially raised the national tricolour at the main gate each year onIndependence Day, then delivering a nationally broadcast address from its ramparts.
The nameRed Fort is a translation of theHindustaniLāl Qila (Hindi:लाल क़िला,Urdu:لال قلعہ),[3][4] derived from the fort's red sandstone walls. Lal means "red" in Hindi, while Qila comes from Arabic, meaning "fortress." Originally known as the "Blessed Fort" (Qila-i-Mubārak), it served as the residence of the imperial family.[5][6] The term Lāl Qila is also used to refer to theAgra Fort.
History
Emperor Shah Jahan commissioned the construction of the Red Fort on 12 May 1639, following his decision to shift his capital from Agra to Delhi. The design of the Red Fort is attributed to the architectUstad Ahmad Lahori, renowned for his work on the Taj Mahal.[7][8] It straddles theYamuna River, which once fed the moats surrounding most of the walls.[9] Construction began in the sacredIslamic month ofMuharram, on 13 May 1638.[10]: 01 Supervised by Shah Jahan, it was completed on 6 April 1648.[11][12][13] The fort was originally adorned in red and white.[14] Unlike other Mughal forts, the Red Fort's boundary walls are asymmetrical to contain and subsume the olderSalimgarh Fort.[10] The fortress-palace served as the centrepiece ofShahjahanabad, the city now known asOld Delhi. Shah Jahan's successor, EmperorAurangzeb, enhanced the Red Fort by adding theMoti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) to the emperor's private quarters. He also constructedbarbicans in front of the two main gates to create a more circuitous approach to the palace.[10]
The Red Fort walls in the background, viewed from the top ofJama Masjid's tower
Following the death of EmperorAurangzeb, the administrative and fiscal structure of the Mughal dynasty experienced decline, leading to the degeneration of the palace during the 18th century. In 1712,Jahandar Shah was crowned theMughal Emperor. Within a year of beginning his rule, Shah was murdered and replaced byFarrukhsiyar. In 1739, the Persian emperor Nadir Shah decisively defeated the Mughal army, despite its considerable strength of approximately 200,000 soldiers.[15] Following his victory, he plundered the Red Fort, seizing its treasures, including the legendaryPeacock Throne. After three months, Nadir Shah returned toPersia. His invasion left the city significantly damaged, and the Mughal Empire, under the next Mughal emperorMuhammad Shah's reign, was severely weakened.[10] The internal weaknesses of the Mughal Empire reduced the Mughals to titular rulers of Delhi. A treaty signed in 1752 established theMarathas as the protectors of the throne in Delhi.[16][17] The 1758 Maratha victory over the Afghans atSirhind, followed bytheir defeat at Panipat,[18] catapulted them into further conflict withAhmad Shah Durrani.[19][20]
In 1760, theMarathas stripped and melted the silver ceiling of theDiwan-i-Khas to raise funds for the defence of Delhi from the armies ofAhmed Shah Durrani.[21][22] In 1761, after the Marathas lost thethird battle of Panipat, Delhi was raided by Durrani. Ten years later, the Marathas, acting at the behest of the exiled EmperorShah Alam II, recaptured Delhi from the Rohilla Afghans.Mahadaji Shinde, the commander of the Maratha Army, restoredShah Alam II to the throne.[23]
In 1764, theJat ruler ofBharatpur, MaharajaJawahar Singh, attackedDelhi, and eventually captured the Red Fort of Delhi on 5 February 1765.[24] Two days later, after exacting tribute from the Mughals, the Jats withdrew their forces from the Red Fort, seizing the Mughal throne. The throne now adorns the palace atDeeg, serving as a historical centrepiece. The doors of the fort are located in theLohagarh Fort ofBharatpur.[25]
In 1788, the grandson ofNajib ad-Dawlah,Rohilla,Ghulam Kadir, looted Delhi and killed female members of the Mughal royal family. He also imprisoned EmperorShah Alam II. Upon learning this,Mahadaji Shinde sent his men to free Shah Alam and pursue Kadir, who was hiding in Ghosgad inRohilkhand. Kadir was eventually apprehended andbeheaded. As a result of this, the Maratha flag was allowed to be hung from the Red Fort until 1803.
Despite its position as the seat of Mughal power and its defensive capabilities, the Red Fort was not a site of any engagements during the 1857 rebellion. Bahadur left the fort on 17 September 1857 and was subsequently apprehended by British forces and returned to the Red Fort before being tried in 1858 and exiled toRangoon in 7 October of that year.[28]
Following the rebellion's suppression, British authorities ordered the systematic demolition of the Red Fort, during which 80% of the fort's structures were demolished, including the stone screen that once connected the pavilions along the river-facing façade of the fort.[29] All the fort's furniture was either removed or destroyed; theharem apartments, servants' quarters, and gardens were demolished, and a line of stone barracks was erected atop them.[30] Only the marble buildings on the east side of the imperial enclosure escaped complete destruction, although they were damaged while demolition was underway. While the defensive walls and towers were relatively unscathed, over two-thirds of the inner structures were demolished.[31][32]
Lord Curzon, who served as theViceroy of India from 1899 to 1905, initiated restoration efforts for the Red Fort. These included the reconstruction of its walls and the revival of its gardens, complete with an updated watering system.[33]
Prime MinisterNehru hoisting the tricolour on 15 August 1947, marking India's first Independence Day
AfterIndian independence, the site experienced few changes, and the Red Fort continued to be used as a militarycantonment. A significant portion of the Red Fort remained under the control of theIndian Army until 22 December 2003, when it was transferred to theArchaeological Survey of India for restoration and conservation.[35][36] In 2009, the Comprehensive Conservation and Management Plan (CCMP), prepared by the Archaeological Survey of India under the auspices of aSupreme Court direction to revitalise the fort, was announced.[37][38][39]
In recent years, several museums and galleries have been added to the Red Fort complex. Four of these museums, inaugurated in 2019, are housed in the colonial-era barracks within the complex. Barrack B1 is dedicated to the 1857 War of Independence, Barrack B2 commemorates the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and Barrack B3 focuses onSubhas Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army movement. Barrack B4, known asDrishyakala, is a collaboration between the Archaeological Survey of India and theDelhi Art Gallery and showcases Indian art. The earlier museums, including the Indian Freedom Fighters' Museum, theMumtaz Mahal Museum, and theNaubat Khana Museum, have been closed, with their exhibits relocated to these newly established museums.[40]
Archaeological finds
Archaeological excavations at the Red Fort have unearthed severalOchre Coloured Pottery culture artefacts dating from 2600 BCE to 1200 BCE.[41]
Modern era
Inner walls and ceiling of theDiwan-e-KhasPrime MinisterNarendra Modi delivers an address on August 15, 2022
The Red Fort, the largest monument in New Delhi,[42] is one of its most popular tourist destinations[43] and attracts thousands of visitors every year.[44] It is a monument of national significance; each year on India's independence day, observed on August 15, thePrime Minister hoists the national flag at the Red Fort and delivers a speech from itsramparts, which is broadcast nationwide.[45] The fort also appears on the back of the₹500 note of theMahatma Gandhi New Series of theIndian rupee.[46]
The Red Fort's architectural features are in varying states of preservation. While some structures remain relatively intact, retaining their original decorative elements, others have suffered significant damage, with inlaid marble floral designs removed by looters. The water features, once extensive, are now dry. The tea house, though not preserved in its historical form, functions as a working restaurant. The mosque and thehammam (public baths) are closed to visitors, who can only view them through glass windows or marble latticework. Walkways within the complex are deteriorating, and public toilets are available both at the entrance and inside the premises. The Lahori Gate serves as the main entrance, leading to a shopping area with jewelry and craft stores. The complex also houses a museum of "blood paintings," which narrate the stories of 20th-century Indian martyrs, alongside an archaeological museum and an Indian war-memorial museum.[citation needed]
2000 terrorist attack
The Red Fort was the site of aterrorist attack on 22 December 2000, carried out by sixLashkar-e-Taiba operatives. Two soldiers and a civilian were murdered in what the news media described as an attempt to derail the then-ongoing India-Pakistan peace talks.[47][48]
Security
To ensure security and prevent terrorist attacks, stringent measures are implemented around the Red Fort on the eve of the Indian Independence Day.Delhi Police and paramilitary forces maintain a vigilant presence in the neighbourhoods surrounding the fort, whileNational Security Guard sharpshooters are strategically stationed on high-rises near the site.[49][50] The airspace around the fort is a designatedno-fly zone during the celebration,[51] andsafe houses exist in the vicinity to which the prime minister and other dignitaries can be taken to in the event of an attack.[49]
Adoption controversy
In April 2018, theDalmia Group adopted the Red Fort for maintenance, development, and operations under the government's "Adopt A Heritage" scheme, through a contract worth ₹25 crores for a period of five years.[52] A memorandum of understanding was signed with the ministries ofTourism andCulture and theArchaeological Survey of India.[53] The adoption of the Red Fort by a private entity sparked outcry and widespread debate, drawing criticism from the public, historians, and political parties. The move also led to the trending of the hashtag #IndiaOnSale on Twitter.[54] In May 2018, the Indian National Congress demanded the suspension of the agreement until an "impartial review" could be conducted by the Central Advisory Board of Archaeology or another recognized body of experts.[55]
2021 Indian farmers' Republic Day protest
On 26 January 2021, during the2021 Indian farmers' Republic Day protest, a coterie of protesting farmers breached the fort, hoisted religious flags from its ramparts, and scaled the domes of the fort.[56] One of the farmers was witnessed climbing a flagpole in front of the fort and hoisting theNishan Sahib pennant on the flagpole.[57] The fort sustained damage owing to clashes between the protestors and the police[58] and was vacated following police announcements.
Discoloration of the Red Fort
Since the late 20th century, the monument has been affected byenvironmental pollution which has turned the Red Fort's color from red to black. According to recent Italo-Indian studies in September 2025, repeated events ofair pollution has contributed to the formation of tarry black crusts forming on the Red Fort's walls.[59] These black crusts are caused by pollutants, includingparticulate matter,nitrogen dioxide,sulfur dioxide,carbon monoxide, and toxic metals, such aslead,copper andzinc.
Architecture
The barrel-vaulted structure located just beyond the Lahore Gate served as a market and was originally constructed to cater to the needs of high-ranking Mughal women residing within the fort
TheWorld Heritage Convention characterises the Red Fort as embodying "the zenith of Mughal creativity". The fort synthesises Islamic palace structure with local traditions, resulting in a confluence of "Persian andTimurid architecture". The fort served as an inspiration for later buildings and gardens across the Indian subcontinent.[1]
The Red Fort spans an area of 254.67 acres (103.06 hectares) and is enclosed by 2.41 kilometres (1.50 miles) of defensive walls.[60] These walls, reinforced with turrets and bastions, vary in height from 18 meters (59 feet) on the river-facing side to 33 meters (108 feet) on the city-facing side. The fort is octagonal, with the north–south axis longer than the east–west axis. The marble, floral decorations and the fort's double domes exemplify later Mughal architecture.[61]
The Red Fort showcases a high level of ornamentation, and theKohinoor diamond was reportedly part of the furnishings. The artwork of the fort integrates Persian, European, and Indian artistic traditions, culminating in a distinctive Shahjahani style characterized by its richness in form, expression, and color. The Red Fort is one of India's most significant architectural complexes, encapsulating a rich history and diverse artistic traditions. Even prior to its designation as a monument of national importance in 1913, efforts were undertaken to ensure its preservation for posterity.
TheLahori and Delhi Gates were used by the public, whereas the Khizrabad Gate was reserved for the emperor.[10] The Lahori Gate serves as the main entrance to the Red Fort, leading to theChhatta Chowk, a domed shopping area often referred to as the covered bazaar.
Major structures
The most significant surviving structures of the Red Fort include its walls and ramparts, the main gates, the audience halls, and the imperial apartments located along the eastern riverbank.[62]
The Lahori Gate, the primary entrance to the Red Fort, derives its name from its orientation towards the city of Lahore, which was once part of theMughal Empire. During Aurangzeb's reign, the aesthetic appeal of the Lahori Gate was modified by the construction of abarbican, which Shah Jahan poetically described as "a veil drawn across the face of a beautiful woman."[63][64][65] Since 1947, on every Indian Independence Day, the national flag is ceremonially unfurled, and the Prime Minister delivers a speech from the ramparts of the Red Fort.
The Delhi Gate serves as the southern public entrance to the Red Fort and shares a similar layout and appearance with the Lahori Gate. Flanking the gate are two life-sized stone elephants positioned to face each other.[66]
Adjacent to the Lahori Gate is theChhatta Chowk (or Meena Bazaar), where silk jewelry and other items for the imperial household were sold during the Mughal period. This market was earlier known asBazaar-i-Musaqqaf orChatta-bazaar (both meaning "roofed market"). The Lahori Gate, the main entrance to the Red Fort, opens into an outer court that intersects with a large north–south street. This street originally separated the fort's military functions, located to the west, from the palaces situated to the east. At its southern end lies the Delhi Gate.[67]
Naubat Khana and the courtyard before its demolition by the British, in an 1858 photographNaubat Khana today
In the east wall of the court stands the now-isolatedNaubat Khana (Persian: "Waiting Hall"), also known asNakkar Khana (drum house). Music was performed daily at scheduled times within the Red Fort, and it was required of everyone, except members of the royalty, to dismount during these performances. Later Mughal emperorsJahandar Shah (1712–1713) andFarrukhsiyar (1713–1719) are believed to have been murdered here. TheIndian War Memorial Museum is located on the second floor.[68]The vaulted arcade of theChhatta Chowk ends in the center of the outer court, which measured 540 by 360 feet (160 m × 110 m).[69] The side arcades and the central tank of the Red Fort were demolished following the 1857 rebellion.
TheDiwan-i-Aam todayTheDiwan-i-Aam in the mid-nineteenth century
The inner main court to which theNakkar Khana led was 540 feet (160 m) wide and 420 feet (130 m) deep, surrounded by guarded galleries.[69] On the far side is theDiwan-i-Aam, the Public Audience Hall. This venue was used to oversee official matters brought forth by commoners, including legal issues such as taxation, inheritance disputes, and matters related toawqaf (endowments).
The hall's columns andengrailed arches exhibit fine craftsmanship, and the hall was originally decorated with whitechunam stucco.[69] At the rear of the venue, in a raised recess, the emperor would grant audiences from the marble balcony (jharokha).
TheDiwan-i-Aam was also used for state functions.[61] The courtyard (mardana) behind it leads to the imperial apartments.
The two southernmost pavilions of the palace arezenanas (women's quarters), consisting of theMumtaz Mahal, built for Arjumand Banu Begum (Mumtaz Mahal), who was wife of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan,[70] and the largerRang Mahal was designated a resort for royal women.[71] TheMumtaz Mahal houses theRed Fort Archaeological Museum.
TheRang Mahal, meaning "Palace of Colors," served as the residence for the emperor's wives and mistresses. It derived its name from its vibrant paintings and intricate decorations, including a mosaic of mirrors. At its center lies a marble pool, which is fed by theNahr-i-Bihisht ("River of Paradise").[72][71]
TheKhas Mahal was the emperor's apartment. It was cooled by theNahr-i-Bihisht.[72] Connected to it is theMuthamman Burj, an octagonal tower where the emperor appeared before the audience awaiting his presence at the riverbank. Such practices were common among most kings of the time, reflecting the prevailing norms and traditions of royal courts.[73]
TheDiwan-i-Khas, or Hall of Private Audience, was a space dedicated to addressing the official matters and requests of the nobility and members of the royal family. A gate located on the north side of theDiwan-i-Aam provided access to the innermost court of the palace, known as theJalau Khana, as well as to theDiwan-i-Khas.[74] It is constructed of white marble and inlaid with precious stones. The once-silver ceiling has been restored in wood.François Bernier described witnessing the jeweled Peacock Throne here in the 17th century. At both ends of the hall, over the two outer arches, is an inscription by the Persian poetAmir Khusrow:
Thehammam (Arabic: حمّام) were the imperial baths, consisting of three apartments separated by corridors and crowned with domes.[75] The apartments are illuminated by a coloured glass skylight. The two rooms flanking the current entrance are believed to have served as bathing spaces for the royal children. The eastern apartment, featuring three fountain basins, was primarily used as a dressing room. Each room had a central fountain, and one included a marble reservoir embedded in the wall. According to legend, perfumed rose-water once flowed from the taps. The western apartment was designated for hot or vapor baths, with heating arrangements installed in its western wall.[76]
Baoli
The baoli (step-well) at the
Red Fort, Delhi
Thebaoli (step-well) is one of the few structures within the Red Fort that survived the widespread demolitions carried out by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. Its chambers were repurposed as a prison and, during theRed Fort Trials of 1945–46, housed INA officers GeneralShah Nawaz Khan, ColonelPrem Kumar Sahgal, and ColonelGurbaksh Singh Dhillon. The Red Fortbaoli is distinctively designed, featuring two sets of staircases that descend to the well.[77]
West of thehammam is theMoti Masjid, the Pearl Mosque. A later addition to the Red Fort, the mosque was built in 1659 as a private place of worship for EmperorAurangzeb. This small, three-domed structure is crafted from white marble and features a three-arched screen that opens onto the courtyard.[78]
TheHira Mahal ("Diamond Palace") is a pavilion located on the southern edge of the Red Fort. It was constructed under the patronage of Bahadur Shah II and is situated at the end of theHayat Baksh Garden.[79] At the northern edge of the Red Fort stood theMoti Mahal, a twin building that was demolished during or shortly after the 1857 rebellion. TheShahi Burj was the emperor's main study; its name means "Emperor's Tower",[80] and it originally featured achhatri on top. Heavily damaged, the tower is undergoing reconstruction. Facing it is a marble pavilion added by EmperorAurangzeb.[81]
Zafar Mahal and the whiteSawan/Bhadon pavilions in the background
TheHayat Bakhsh Bagh (Persian:حیات بخش باغ,lit.'Life-Bestowing Garden') is located in the northeast part of the complex. At each end of the canal within the Red Fort is a white marble pavilion, named theSawan andBhadon Pavilions, after the Hindu months of Sawan and Bhadon. At the center of the reservoir stands theZafar Mahal, an eponymous red sandstone structure added around 1842 by Bahadur Shah Zafar.[82]
Smaller gardens, such as theMehtab Bagh (Moonlight Garden), once existed to the west of the main garden but were demolished during the construction of British barracks.[10] There are plans to restore the gardens.[83] Beyond these structures, a road to the north leads to an arched bridge connecting to theSalimgarh Fort.
To the north of theHayat Bakhsh Bagh and theShahi Burj lies the quarter of the imperial princes, which was used by members of the Mughal royal family. Much of this area was demolished by British forces after the 1857 rebellion, with one of the palaces being repurposed into a tea house for soldiers.
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