Italian passport used by SS officerJosef Mengele to immigrate to Argentina under a false name[a]
Theratlines (German:Rattenlinien) were systems of escape routes used by GermanNazis and otherfascists to flee Europe from 1945 onwards in the aftermath ofWorld War II. These routes mainly led toward havens in South America – particularlyArgentina – in addition toBrazil,Chile, andParaguay. Some escapees also settled at the various transfer points or used them to flee elsewhere.
Two primary routes developed independently but their operators eventually collaborated.[1] The first went from Germany toSpain, thenArgentina; the second led from Germany toRome, thenGenoa, and finally South America. As many as 9,000 Nazi war criminals and their collaborators reportedly escaped to Argentina (up to 5,000),[2]Brazil (up to 2,000), andChile (up to 1,000).[3] Some refugees immersed themselves inLatin America by pretending to be farmers and/orCatholic.[4]
The origins of the first ratlines are connected to various developments inVatican-Argentina relations before and duringWorld War II.[5] As early as 1942, the Vatican Secretary of State CardinalLuigi Maglione – evidently at the behest ofPope Pius XII – contacted an ambassador of Argentina regarding that country's willingness to accept European Catholic immigrants in a timely manner, allowing them to live and work.[6] Anton Weber, a German priest who headed the Roman branch ofSaint Raphael's Society [de], travelled toPortugal with the intention to travel to Argentina, seemingly to lay the groundwork for Catholic immigration.[6]
Some Catholic leaders decided to work with the Nazis in an attempt to fight against their common enemy ofBolshevism. By 1944, ratline activity which was centered inFrancoist Spain was conducted in an attempt to facilitate the escape of Nazis.[7] Among the primary organizers wereCharles Lescat, a French member ofAction Française – an organization suppressed byPope Pius XI and rehabilitated byPope Pius XII – andPierre Daye, a Belgian with contacts in the Spanish government.[8] Lescat and Daye were the first to flee from Europe with the assistance of the Argentinian cardinalAntonio Caggiano.[8]
By 1946, hundreds ofwar criminals were living in Spain, as well as thousands of former Nazis and fascists.[9] According to U.S. Secretary of StateJames F. Byrnes, Vatican cooperation in turning over these "asylum-seekers" was "negligible".[9] Unlike the Vatican emigration operation in Italy which centered onVatican City, the Spanish ratlines – though fostered by the Vatican – were relatively independent of the Vatican Emigration Bureau's hierarchy.[10]
Austrian Catholic bishopAlois Hudal, a Nazi sympathiser, was rector of thePontificio Istituto Teutonico Santa Maria dell'Anima in Rome, a seminary for Austrian and German priests, and "Spiritual Director of the German People resident in Italy".[11] After theend of the war in Italy, Hudal became active in ministering to German-speaking prisoners of war and internees who were being held in camps throughout Italy. In December 1944, the Allies allowed the Vatican to appoint a representative to visit the German-speaking civil internees in Italy, a job assigned to Hudal.[12]
Hudal used this position to aid the escape of wanted Nazi war criminals, includingFranz Stangl (commanding officer of theTreblinka extermination camp),Gustav Wagner (commanding officer of theSobibor extermination camp),Alois Brunner (responsible for theDrancy internment camp near Paris and in charge of deportations in Slovakia toNazi concentration camps),Erich Priebke (who was responsible for theArdeatine massacre), andSchutzstaffel (SS) officerAdolf Eichmann (architect ofthe Holocaust); Hudal was later unashamedly open about his role.[13][14] Some of these wanted men were being held in internment camps; generally lacking identity papers, they would be enrolled in camp registers under false names. Other Nazis hid in Italy and sought Hudal out after learning about his role in assisting escapes.[15] In his memoirs, Hudal said of his actions, "I thank God that He [allowed me] to visit and comfort many victims in their prisons and concentration camps and to help them escape withfalse identity papers."[16] He explained that in his eyes:
The Allies' War against Germany was not a crusade, but the rivalry of economic complexes for whose victory they had been fighting. This so-called business ... used catchwords like democracy, race, religious liberty and Christianity as a bait for the masses. All these experiences were the reason why I felt duty bound after 1945 to devote my whole charitable work mainly to former National Socialists and Fascists, especially to so-called 'war criminals'.
According toMark Aarons andJohn Loftus, Hudal was the first Catholic priest to dedicate himself to establishing escape routes.[17] The Rome office of theInternational Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) issued refugeesLaissez-passer documents allowing passage from Italy. These were accepted asde facto passports in South America.[18] Although typically required to be signed for in person, blank forms were accessible to Hudal and the signature of the ICRC official was confirmed to be forged in a number of cases.[18]
A small but influential network ofCroatianFranciscan priests led by FatherKrunoslav Draganović organised a highly sophisticated ratline with headquarters at theSan Girolamo degli Illirici Seminary College in Rome, with links from Austria and an embarkation point inGenoa. The ratline initially focused on aiding members of the CroatianUstaše including its leader,Ante Pavelić.[19]
A number of priests participated, included Father Vilim Cecelja (former Deputy Military Vicar to the Ustaše),[20] who founded a branch of the Croatian Red Cross in Austria (which the IRC only supported in an unofficial capacity). He used his Red Cross and United States papers to travel freely aroundSalzburg, where many Ustashe and Nazi refugees remained, providing Red Cross identities to numerous individuals who lacked identification. In October 1945, Cecelja was arrested by theU.S. Army'sCounterintelligence Corps (CIC) for his Ustaše ties.[21] FatherDominik Mandić (an official Vatican representative at San Girolamo and treasurer of the Franciscans), used his Italian secret police connections to ensure that the Franciscans' identity cards would be considered sufficiently official to issue them Italian identity cards.[22] Finally, Draganović would phoneMonsignor Karlo Petranović in Genoa with the number of requiredberths on ships to South America.[23]
The Draganović ratline was an open secret among the intelligence and diplomatic communities in Rome. As early as August 1945, Allied commanders in Rome were asking questions about the use of San Girolamo as a "haven" for Ustaše.[24] AU.S. State Department report of 12 July 1946 listed nine war criminals, includingAlbanians andMontenegrins as well as Croats, plus others "not actually sheltered" at San Girolamo Seminary who "enjoy Church support and protection".[25]
In February 1947, CIC Special Agent Robert Clayton Mudd reported ten members of Pavelić's Ustaše cabinet living either in San Girolamo or in the Vatican itself. Mudd had infiltrated an agent into the seminary and confirmed that it was "honeycombed with cells of Ustashe operatives" guarded by "armed youths". Mudd reported a car protected under diplomatic immunity transported unidentified people between the Vatican and the seminary.[26] Additionally, by mid-1947, British intelligence was aware that Petranović mainly helped war criminals.[23]
In 1944,Sturmbannführer (Major) Alarich Bross founded a network of collaborationist Finns and Nazis inFinland. Organized to engage in an armed struggle against theSoviet occupation that never occurred, it smuggled out those who wanted to leave Finland for Germany orSweden. A system of Finnish safehouses were created under the cover of a company called 'Great Fishing Cooperative' with routes provided by a 50–70-man maritime transport organization. Its targets in Sweden were secret loading bays in the small town ofHärnösand, westernNorrland. Others were smuggled to Sweden from the north over theTornio river. Access to Europe was opened through the Swedish safehouse network.[27]
Through the safehouse routes, the resistance movement transported German citizens, officers, intelligence personnel, Finnish Nazis and fascists, andEstonian andEast Karelian refugees out of Finland. Hundreds of people were assisted in Sweden, including more than a hundred German prisoners of war who had fled the Finns. Hundreds were spirited to Germany viaU-boat after theSeptember 1944 break.[28][27] In 1946, Finnish industrialistPetter Forsström was convicted of treason for helping Nazis flee from Finland to Sweden, for instance by buying themmotorboats.[29][30]
The Nazis had a presence in Argentina before the war, peaking with 2,110 members in 1935.[31] In June 1941, Germany sent 83 boxes of documents from its embassy inTokyo, Japan, via theMSNana Maru to Buenos Aires.[32][33] Customs agents impounded the boxes, which were searched byArgentina's foreign ministry. Five boxes containedNazi propaganda hidden amid material labeled as "scientific, literary and cultural",[34] while the others housed mostly children's books, magazines and war photographs. A month later, Argentine officials raided the secret offices of the banned Nazi Party (disguised as German labor organizations). Perhaps 5,000 seized memberships from theGerman Labor Front and the Germantrade union association were stored by theSupreme Court of Argentina.[33]
At some point, German-Argentine millionaire Ludwig Freude, who oversawBuenos Aires'sGerman Overseas Bank (a subsidiary ofDeutsche Bank), established contacts withSwiss banks.[35][34][36] In May 1943, SS functionaryWalter Schellenberg secured a secret agreement with the Argentine military that excluded Nazis from arrest in Argentina and established adiplomatic pouch exchange system between the two regimes. The Argentine nationalists conducted acoup d'état that June, opening a way forJuan Perón's rise to power.[37] Meanwhile, German wealth derived fromlooting Holocaust victims was placed in aReichsbank account under the false name ofMax Heiliger.[38] By 1944, this was worth millions ofReichsmarks, in addition to shipments to theReich Chancellery headquarters ofMartin Bormann.[39] SS officerOtto Skorzeny facilitated the international transfer of wealth from the account, reportedly depositing it in the name of Perón's future wife,Eva.[39] According toThe New York Times, the U.S. State Department reported in 1945 that "the personal fortunes of Nazi officials" were delivered to Buenos Aires via diplomatic pouch, with Nazi higher-upHermann Göring possessing overUSD $20 million and aU-boat loaded with Nazi loot.[40]
U-530's crew was probed about their potential complicity.
AfterGermany's surrender on 8 May 1945, the captain ofU-530, then operating in the northernAtlantic Ocean, opted to surrender to theArgentine Navy inMar del Plata,Buenos Aires Province, which occurred on 10 July.[41] He was unable to explain why the voyage had taken two months nor the absence of usual documents. The Navy reported that no officers were aboard, while the police purportedly reported thatAdolf Hitler and perhapsEva Braun hadbeen seen disembarking from a submarine.[41] The capturedU-boat and its crew were sent to North America, which did not discourage theU-977 from surrendering in Buenos Aires in mid-August in hopes of being sheltered.[42][b]
On 18 January 1946, Bishop Antonio Caggiano, leader of the Argentine chapter ofCatholic Action, flew to Rome to be consecrated as cardinal by Pius XII. Both Caggiano and French cardinalEugène Tisserant heavily interceded in helping Lescat and Daye and their associates emigrate from Spain to Argentina.[44][8] In early 1946, Caggiano implored the Argentine consul in Rome to stamp the passports of three confirmedFrench war criminals (and five other Frenchmen) with Argentine tourist visas, regardless of missing return tickets and health certificates.[45] The first documented case of a French war criminal arriving in Buenos Aires wasÉmile Dewoitine on 28 May 1946, after sailing first class on the same ship with Caggiano.[46][c]
Reportedly aligned with Nazi intelligence, Ludwig Freude coordinated contributions from Nazi collaborators to Perón's1946 presidential campaign.[49][40] Perón appointedanthropologist Santiago Peralta (an avowedanti-Semite) as his immigration commissioner and Ludwig's sonRodolfo Freude as the head of the country'sfirst intelligence bureau;[50][40] the two Péron subordinates evidently aided European war criminals by streamlining their pathway to citizenship and employing them within their departments.[51] Perón's regime collaborated with Draganović's ratline and operated additional ratlines throughScandinavia andSwitzerland.[52] As many as 5,000 Nazi war criminals escaped to Argentina,[3] some as late as 1950, the year Adolf Eichmann arrived.[53] Perón later stated that he helped as many Nazi officials as possible in a reaction to theNuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals (1945–1946), which he thought were a "disgrace".[4][54]
Additionally, the FBI supported Chilean police'sDepartment 50 as it probed Nazi spy activity within its borders during the war. In its last outing (c. 1945–1947), Chile joined with other governments to probe Nazi activity in wider Latin America, dismantling networks in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, andVenezuela. It declassified numerous files and photographs in 2017.[57][58]
After entering Argentina under a false name,Josef Mengele (known as the "Angel of Death" due to his role in the Holocaust) reclaimed his surname in the mid-1950s to marry his brother's widow inUruguay, then brought her to Argentina.[66] In 1959, he used his real name to apply for a passport at the German embassy in Buenos Aires;[67] the same year,West Germany unsuccessfully requested extradition.[68] In 1960, Argentine officials noted, "it appears that, while maintaining his real name, [Mengele] belonged to the SS Society".[69] However, by that year, he had fled toParaguay (as noted by the Argentine police), andc. 1963 Brazilian authorities suspected his presence. He died in Brazil in 1979, with his remains identified viaDNA analysis in 1992.[67] The same year, Argentina's government declassified a voluminous file regarding Nazi escapees.[70] In the mid-1990s, Argentine presidentCarlos Menem created a commission to investigate the country's Nazi past. Its initial 1998 report claimed that Argentina had only received 150–180 Nazi criminals. TheSimon Wiesenthal Center (SWC) dismissed this quantity as far too low and noted a lack of disclosures regarding alleged deposits ofNazi gold into theCentral Bank of Argentina.[71][72]
In the 1990s, Swiss bankCredit Suisse investigated Jewish-held accounts that had been seized by the Nazis or stagnated after the killing of their owners. This led to a USD $1.25 billion settlement in 1999, but the bank was accused of ignoring Nazi-tied accounts. Since 2020, the SWC and businessmanRonald Lauder (who estimates that an additional $5–10 billion was not released)[73] have pushed Credit Suisse's owner,UBS, to cooperate with a renewed investigation of loot-derived funds.[34][74]U.S. Senate Budget Committee headsChuck Grassley (R) andSheldon Whitehouse (D) launched an investigation[75] and in 2024, former U.S. prosecutorNeil Barofsky reported that he had "identified client documents and other evidence that demonstrate a significant connection between Credit Suisse and one of the key [escape] routes", specifically concerning "funds required to operate the ratline, including to pay for bribes, false identification documents, and transportation".[34] On 3 February 2026, theSenate Judiciary Committee (which Grassley nowchaired) held an interim hearing.[75] Notably, UBS was questioned about its withholding of over 150 documents related to the 1990s settlement.[76][e] According to investigators, some 890 Credit Suisse accounts were used by Nazis,[f] including one for theGerman Red Cross and some for theArgentine immigration office inBern, Switzerland, to which it rented an office;[76][80] the bank also interacted significantly with the SS.[78][79][73] Argentine authorities paid European officials some USD $22 million (adjusted for inflation) to facilitate the routes;[77] other key operatives held accounts, probably used for bribes (with Barofsky naming the French and Swiss).[73] The Senate hoped to conclude its probe by mid-2026, with Barofsky's final report expected by the end of the year.[78][79][g][h]
In early 2025, Argentine presidentJavier Milei met with representatives from the SWC, who requested in conjunction with the Judiciary Committee for cooperation in the latter's investigation of Credit Suisse's Nazi patronage.[82][83][2] Late in April 2025, Argentina published 1,850 relevant documents online (many of which had been declassified in 1992).[70] In May 2025,United Press International reported that these files indicate that the Nazis may have bribed Perón's government with USD $200 million in gold, some of which was allegedly delivered viaU-boat before being delivered to Eva Perón.[84] The funds were reportedly handled by German "bankers" said to include Rodolfo Freude.[84] Milei's administration also provided the SWC (and Barofsky) with additional documents, including some fromFabricaciones Militares related to about USD $64.5 million (2025 currency) spent from 1945 to 1950 to finance national defense research and secret missions to Europe to hire unknown "technical personnel".[34]
Additionally, in May 2025 the Supreme Court of Argentina announced its discovery of a dozen boxes of archived material, which included thousands of party membership documents, as well as Nazi propaganda, passports, postcards, and photographs.[32][33][85] The court associated the boxes with those impounded from the MSNana Maru in June 1941, but Argentine historian Julio Mutti pointed out that the party memberships seem instead to match the material confiscated during the July 1941 raids on Nazi offices in Argentina.[33] As of December 2025, these documents, said to total 6,000, were undergoing restoration and digital preservation for possible legal actions and public access.[33][85][34] That same month, it was announced that the Buenos Aires Holocaust Museum would analyze and likely report the contents of some of the documents, excluding those with "personal or sensitive data" such as party memberships.[86]
In April 1947, the 430th CIC, based inAllied-occupied Austria, began protectingKlaus Barbie, known as the "Butcher of Lyon" for hisGestapo leadership inLyon, France. The French demanded Barbie'sextradition in 1950, as rumors circulated that he had been employed by the 66th CIC (previously unaware that Barbie was being sheltered by the 430th).[87] Barbie gave the CIC access to knowledge about theFrench occupation zone in Germany, theCommunist Party of Germany, and former SS officers.[88] Meanwhile, Barbie learned about the Austria-based Document Disposal Unit (DDU), a U.S. State Department intelligence unit led by CIA directorAllen Dulles and staffed withOffice of Strategic Services (OSS) men, also sometimes operating asWar Department orOSS entities.[87][89] Fearing that France may have fallen tocommunism and wanted to extract CIC intel from Barbie,[88] the State Department claimed that he could not be found in the U.S. Zone of Austria, and by 1951, facilitated his escape via Draganović's route through Rome.[87][89] This ratline was reinforced by the DDU, which aimed to eliminate French and British control. Barbie settled inBolivia and spent 33 years there before his arrest.[87][89]
The 430th reported in 1950 that in mid-1947, the Army instructed them to begin using Draganović's Roman network to evacuate some people out of Austria, supported by a U.S. official at theInternational Refugee Organization (IRO). The directive applied to:[90]
visitors who had been in the custody of the 430th CIC and completely processed in accordance with current directives and requirements, and whose continued residence in Austria constituted a security threat as well as a source of possible embarrassment to the Commanding General of [theU.S. Forces in Austria], since the Soviet Command had become aware [of] their presence in [the] US Zone of Austria and in some instances had requested the return of these persons to Soviet custody. ... [Draganović] handled all phases of the operation after the defectees arrived in Rome, such as the procurement of IRO Italian and South American documents, visas, stamps, arrangements for disposition, land or sea, and notification of resettlement committees in foreign lands.
After June 1951, the 430th was no longer responsible for aiding ratline escapees, which the CIA was then slated to perform.[91] Former SS officerTscherim Soobzokov was enlisted as a CIA spy early in theCold War to gain intel from Soviet-aligned contacts in theMiddle East. He moved to the U.S. and later worked for the FBI.[92]
Notable Nazis and war criminals who escaped using the ratlines include:
Andrija Artuković (Ustaše official) entered the U.S. as a touristc. 1948.[93] After decades of overstaying his visa and resulting legal battles, he was arrested in 1984 and extradited toSFR Yugoslavia in 1986, where he died in prison in 1988.[93]
Klaus Barbie (SS officer) was sheltered by the CIC from April 1947 and fled to Bolivia in 1951 with help from the U.S.[87] In 1983, he was extradited to France,[87] where he died in prison in 1991.[94]
László Csatáry (Nazi collaborator) fled toCanada. His citizenship was stripped in 1997 and he fled, but was placed underhouse arrest in 2012. He died the next year while awaiting trial.[96]
Herberts Cukurs (Nazi collaborator) fled to Brazil by 1946.[97] He was assassinated byMossad agents in Uruguay in 1965.[98]
Léon Degrelle (SS officer) intended to flee to South America in 1945, but his escape plane crashed at the Spain rendezvous. He was detained, but fled his hospital in 1946 while recovering.[99] He died in Spain in 1994.[100]
Aribert Heim (SS doctor) fled Germany in 1962 and most likely died in Egypt in 1992.[105]
Friedrich Kadgien (Nazi collaborator) escaped with loot to Switzerland in 1945, later going to Brazil and around 1950 Buenos Aires, where he died in 1978.[106]
Olavi Karpalo (SS volunteer) fled to Venezuelac. 1945, dying there in 1988.[107]
Aarne Kauhanen (Nazi collaborator) fled to Venezuelac. 1945. He was arrested in 1947 and died in 1949.[108]
Josef Mengele (SS officer) fled to Argentina in 1949, then to Paraguay around 1960 and then Brazil, where he died in 1979.[67]
Arvid Ojasti (Nazi collaborator) fled to Norway in 1945, then Sweden, and finally Venezuela. In December 1963, he was shot and killed under unclear circumstances.[108][109]
Ante Pavelić (founder of the Ustaše) escaped to Argentina in 1948,[110] surviving an assassination attempt in 1957, then moved to Spain, where he died from his wounds.[111]
Erich Priebke (SS officer) fled to Argentinac. 1948 and was arrested there in 1994.[112] In 2013, he died at the age of 100 during his house arrest in Rome.[113]
Eduard Roschmann (SS officer) escaped to Argentina in 1948, then to Paraguay, where he died in 1977.[115]
Hans-Ulrich Rudel (Nazi pilot) fled to Argentina in 1948 and aided other fugitives.[116] He later moved to Paraguay[117] and died in Germany in 1982.[118]
Dinko Šakić (Ustaše official) fled to Spain then Argentina in 1947.[119][120] He was arrested in 1998 and extradited to Croatia.[121] He was sentenced to 20 years in prison for war crimes andcrimes against humanity.[122] He died in 2008.[123]
Otto Skorzeny (SS officer) escaped an internment camp in 1948[124] and fled to Spain.[125] He made many trips to Argentina, serving as a bodyguard for Eva Perón. He died in Spain in 1975.[126]
Boris Smyslovsky (Nazi collaborator) fled to Argentina in 1948 from neutralLiechtenstein, where he later returned and died in 1988.[127]
Franz Stangl (SS officer) fled to Syria in 1948 then Brazil in 1951. He was arrested in 1967 and extradited to West Germany, where he died in 1971.[128]
Ludolf von Alvensleben (SS officer) fled to Argentinac. 1946. AlthoughPoland sentenced him to death in absentia, he evaded justice by remaining in Argentina until his death in 1970.[129][130]
Gustav Wagner (SS officer) fled to Brazil in 1950 and was arrested there in 1978.[131] The country refused to extradite him and he committed suicide in 1980.[132]
Since late 2024, the ratlines have sometimes been satirically invoked by comedians in relation to U.S. presidentDonald Trump and his father,Fred Trump.[136][137] After Donald claimed that his father had told him never to say "Nazi" or "Hitler",[138]Stephen Colbert joked that Fred had only told his son not to take Hitler's namein vain or he would have to put money in aswear jar for his "uncles in Argentina".[138] In early 2025, after Trump declared that the U.S. would provide $20–40 billion to Argentina,Colin Jost jested that Trump administration officials might be preparing to flee there.[139][140]
^Apparently issued in 1947, the document was later invalidated, hence the Italianannullato ('cancelled').
^U-977's captain twice asserted in his 1952 book thatU-530 arrived earlier than its surrender, even claiming that this occurred while Hitler was still alive.[43]
^In 1948, France sentenced Dewoitinein absentia to 20 years of hard labour.[46]
^Many photographed subjects in Chile's anti-Nazi investigation demonstrate no awareness of a camera—possibly implying the use ofhidden devices.[47][48]
^Arguing that releasing these would require them to make further payments (besides the Senate's goal of uncovering history), UBS cited the 1999 settlement's language as satisfying all financial requirements regarding Nazi-affected accounts, despite the apparent omission of loot-derived funds from the 1990s probe (and the denial of the existence of an account for the SS's economic arm, now proven).[77][78][79][73]
^These consist of 628 accounts for individuals and 262 for legal entities.[76]
^Further review could last much longer,[78] with Barofsky comparing the bank's archives to the huge warehouse at the end ofRaiders of the Lost Ark.[73]
^On the day of the interim hearing,Senate Banking Committee chairTim Scott (R) complained that his panel had not been consulted about the yearslong probe and asserted its jurisdiction over financial institutions, citing its involvement in reaching the 1990s settlement (which excluded the many accounts now under scrutiny) and requesting "all correspondence" and "all productions received to date" by 25 February.[75][81]
^Avraham, Yerachmiel Ben (2016).All in the Name of Jesus: The Murder of Millions. WaveCloud Corporation. p. 237.ISBN9781622176342.Mudd's conclusion was the following: 'DRAGANOVIC's sponsorship of these Croat Ustashes definitely links him up with the plan of the Vatican to shield these ex-Ustasha nationalists until such time as they are able to procure for them the proper documents to enable them to go to South America. The Vatican, undoubtedly banking on the strong anti-Communist feelings of these men, is endeavoring to infiltrate them into South America in any way possible to counteract the spread of Red doctrine. It has been reliably reported, for example that Dr. VRANCIC has already gone to South America and that Ante PAVELIC and General KREN are scheduled for an early departure to South America through Spain. All these operations are said to have been negotiated by DRAGANOVIC because of his influence in the Vatican.'
^From the 'Perón tapes' he recorded the year before his death, published inYo, Juan Domingo Perón, Luca de Tenaet al. (Goñi 2002, p. 100) "In Nuremberg at that time something was taking place that I personally considered a disgrace and an unfortunate lesson for the future of humanity. I became certain that the Argentine people also considered the Nuremberg process a disgrace, unworthy of the victors, who behaved as if they hadn't been victorious. Now we realize that they [the Allies] deserved to lose the war."
^Knickerbocker, H. R. (2008).Is Tomorrow Hitler's?: 200 Questions on the Battle of Mankind (reprint ed.). Kessinger Publishing. p. 5.ISBN9781417992775.
^abcdefWolfe, Robert (15 August 2016)."Analysis of the IRR File of Klaus Barbie".National Archives – Nazi War Criminal Records Interagency Working Group. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Retrieved3 January 2017.
^abSilvennoinen, Oula: Salaiset aseveljet : Suomen ja Saksan turvallisuuspoliisiyhteistyö 1933–1944, s. 306, 319. Helsinki: Otava, 2008. ISBN 978-951-12150-1-1.
^Uola, Mikko: Unelma kommunistisesta Suomesta 1944–1953. Helsinki: Minerva, 2013. ISBN 978-952-492-768-0.
^Fischer, Bernd J. (2007).Balkan Strongmen: Dictators and Authoritian Rulers of Southeast Europe. Purdue University Press. p. 211.ISBN978-1-55753-455-2.
^Lee, Martin A. (1999).The Beast Reawakens: Fascism's Resurgence from Hitler's Spymasters to Today's Neo-Nazi Groups and Right-Wing Extremists. Taylor & Francis. pp. 42–43.ISBN0-415-92546-0.
^Hierro, P.d. (2022). The Neofascist Network and Madrid, 1945–1953: From City of Refuge to Transnational Hub and Centre of Operations. Contemporary European History, 31(2), 171–194.https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960777321000114
Sachslehner, Johannes (2019).Hitlers Mann im Vatikan: Bischof Alois Hudal. Ein dunkles Kapitel in der Geschichte der Kirche. Vienna-Graz: Molden, 2019.ISBN978-3-222-15040-1.
Birn, Ruth Bettina.Review of Goñi, Uki, Odessa: Die wahre Geschichte: Fluchthilfe für NS-Kriegsverbrecher and Schneppen, Heinz, Odessa und das Vierte Reich: Mythen der Zeitgeschichte.H-Soz-u-Kult, H-Net Reviews. October, 2007.
Breitman, Richard;Goda, Norman J. W.; Naftali, Timothy; and Wolfe, Robert (2005).U.S. Intelligence and the Nazis. Cambridge University Press;ISBN9780521617949.
Graham, Robert and Alvarez, David. (1998).Nothing Sacred: Nazi Espionage against the Vatican, 1939–1945. London: Frank Cass.
Simpson, Christopher (1988).Blowback: The First Full Account of America's Recruitment of Nazis and Its Disastrous Effect on The cold war, Our Domestic and Foreign Policy. New York: (Grove/Atlantic);ISBN978-0020449959.
Steinacher, Gerald (2006).The Cape of Last Hope: The Flight of Nazi War Criminals through Italy to South America, in Eisterer, Klaus and Günter Bischof (eds; 2006)Transatlantic Relations: Austria and Latin America in the 19th and 20th Century (Transatlantica 1), pp. 203–24. New Brunswick: Transatlantica.
Steinacher, Gerald (2012; P/B edition).Nazis on the Run: How Hitler's Henchmen Fled Justice. Oxford University Press;ISBN978-0199642458.
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