Rashtrakuta Empire | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 753–982 | |||||||||||
![Rashtrakuta control c. 800 CE, during the Tripartite Struggle[1][2]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aMap_of_Rashtrakuta_Empire_around_790_A.D.png) | |||||||||||
| Capital | Manyakheta | ||||||||||
| Common languages | Kannada Prakrit Sanskrit | ||||||||||
| Religion | Jainism(primary) Hinduism[3] Buddhism[4] | ||||||||||
| Government | Monarchy | ||||||||||
| Maharaja | |||||||||||
• 753–756 | Dantidurga | ||||||||||
• 973–982 | Indra IV | ||||||||||
| History | |||||||||||
• Earliest Rashtrakuta records | 753 | ||||||||||
• Established | 753 | ||||||||||
• Disestablished | 20 March 982 | ||||||||||
| |||||||||||
| Today part of | India | ||||||||||
| Rashtrakuta dynasty |
|---|
|
TheRashtrakuta Empire (Kannada:[raːʂʈrɐkuːʈɐ]) was a royal Indian polity ruling large parts of theIndian subcontinent between the 6th and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakutainscription is a 7th-centurycopper plate grant detailing their rule from Manapur, a city in Central or West India. Other ruling Rashtrakuta clans from the same period mentioned in inscriptions were the kings ofAchalapur and the rulers ofKannauj.
The Elichpur clan was afeudatory of theBadami Chalukyas, and during the rule ofDantidurga, it overthrew ChalukyaKirtivarman II and went on to build an empire with theGulbarga region in modernKarnataka as its base. This clan came to be known as the Rashtrakutas ofManyakheta, rising to power inSouth India in 753 AD. At the same time thePala dynasty ofBengal and thePrathihara dynasty ofGurjaratra were gaining force in eastern and northwestern India respectively. An Arabic text,Silsilat al-Tawarikh (851), called the Rashtrakutas one of the four principal empires of the world.[5]
This period, between the 8th and the 10th centuries, saw atripartite struggle for the resources of the richGangetic plains, each of these three empires annexing the seat of power at Kannauj for short periods of time. At their peak the Rashtrakutas ofManyakheta ruled a vast empire stretching from theGanges River andYamuna Riverdoab in the north toKanyakumari in the south, a fruitful time of political expansion, architectural achievements and famous literary contributions. Interpretations of some historians suggest that the only later kings of the dynasty were influenced by Jainism.[6][7] However, other historians contend their Jain affiliation was not a later development and that historical evidence shows they were devout followers of the Jain Dharma, and that successive kings continued their family's legacy of Jain patronage.[8][9][10]
During their rule,Jain monks, Jain mathematicians and Jain scholars contributed important works inKannada andSanskrit.Amoghavarsha I, the most famous king of this dynasty wroteKavirajamarga, a landmark literary work in the Kannada language. Architecture reached a milestone in theDravidian style, the finest example of which is seen in theKailasanatha Temple atEllora in modernMaharashtra. Other important contributions are the Kashi-Vishwanatha temple and the Jain~Narayana temple atPattadakal in modern Karnataka, both of which areUNESCO World Heritage Sites.
.jpg)
The origin of the Rashtrakuta dynasty has been a controversial topic of Indian history. These issues pertain to the origin of the earliest ancestors of the Rashtrakutas during the time of EmperorAshoka in the 3rd centuryBCE,[15] and the connection between the several Rashtrakuta dynasties that ruled small kingdoms in northern and central India and the Deccan in the 6th and 7th centuries. The relationship of these medieval Rashtrakutas to the most famous later dynasty, the Rashtrakutas ofManyakheta (present-day Malkhed in theKalaburagi district, Karnataka state), who ruled between the 8th and 10th centuries has also been debated.[16][17][18]
The sources for Rashtrakuta history include medievalinscriptions, ancient literature in thePali language,[19] contemporaneous literature in Sanskrit andKannada and the notes of the Arab travellers.[20] Theories about the dynastic lineage (Surya Vamsa—Solar line andChandra Vamsa—Lunar line), the native region and the ancestral home have been proposed, based on information gleaned from inscriptions, royal emblems, the ancient clan names such as "Rashtrika", epithets (Ratta,Rashtrakuta,Lattalura Puravaradhiswara), the names of princes and princesses of the dynasty, and clues from relics such as coins.[18][21] Scholars debate over which ethnic/linguistic groups can claim the early Rashtrakutas. Possibilities include theKannadiga,[22][23][24][25][26]Reddi,[27] theMaratha,[28][29] the tribes from thePunjab region,[30] or other north western ethnic groups of India.[31]
Scholars however concur that the rulers of the imperial dynasty in the 8th to 10th century made theKannada language as important as Sanskrit. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use both Kannada and Sanskrit (historiansSheldon Pollock and Jan Houben claim they are mostly in Kannada),[32][33][34][35][36] and the rulers encouraged literature in both languages. The earliest existing Kannada literary writings are credited to their court poets and royalty.[37][38][39][40] Though these Rashtrakutas wereKannadigas,[26][18][41][42][43][44][22] they were conversant in a northern Deccan language as well.[45]
The heart of the Rashtrakuta Empire included nearly all ofKarnataka,Maharashtra and parts ofAndhra Pradesh, an area which the Rashtrakutas ruled for over two centuries. The Samangadh copper plate grant (753) confirms that the feudatory KingDantidurga, who probably ruled from Achalapura inBerar (modernElichpur in Maharashtra), defeated the great Karnatic army (referring to the army of theBadami Chalukyas) of Kirtivarman II ofBadami in 753 and took control of the northern regions of the Chalukya empire.[46][47][48] He then helped his son-in-law,Pallava KingNandivarman II regainKanchi from the Chalukyas and defeated the Gurjaras, and the rulers ofKalinga,Kosala andSrisailam.[49][50]
Dantidurga's successorKrishna I brought major portions of present-day Karnataka andKonkan under his control.[51][52] During the rule ofDhruva Dharavarsha who took control in 780, the kingdom expanded into an empire that encompassed all of the territory between theKaveri River andCentral India.[51][53][54][55] He led successful expeditions to Kannauj, the seat of northern Indian power where he defeated thePratiharas and thePalas of Bengal, gaining him fame and vast booty but not more territory. He also brought theEastern Chalukyas andGangas ofTalakad under his control.[51][56] According to Altekar and Sen, the Rashtrakutas became a pan-India power during his rule.[55][57]
The ascent of Dhruva Dharavarsha's third son,Govinda III, to the throne heralded an era of success like never before.[59] There is uncertainty about the location of the early capital of the Rashtrakutas at this time.[60][61][62] During his rule there was a three way conflict between the Rashtrakutas, the Palas and the Pratiharas for control over the Gangetic plains. Describing his victories over the Pratihara Emperor Nagabhatta II and thePala EmperorDharmapala,[51] the Sanjan inscription states the horses of Govinda III drank from the icy waters of the Himalayan streams and his war elephants tasted thesacred waters of theGanges.[63][64] His military exploits have been compared to those ofAlexander the Great andArjuna ofMahabharata.[65] Having conquered Kannauj, he travelled south, took firm hold over Gujarat, Kosala (Kaushal),Gangavadi, humbled thePallavas of Kanchi, installed a ruler of his choice inVengi and received two statues as an act of submission from the king ofCeylon (one statue of the king and another of his minister). The Cholas, thePandyas and the Kongu Cheras of Karur all paid him tribute.[66][67][68][69] As one historian puts it, the drums of the Deccan were heard from the Himalayan caves to the shores of the Malabar Coast.[65] The Rashtrakutas empire now spread over the areas fromCape Comorin toKannauj and fromBanaras toBharuch.[70][71]
The successor of Govinda III,Amoghavarsha I madeManyakheta his capital and ruled a large empire. Manyakheta remained the Rashtrakutas' regal capital until the end of the empire.[72][73][74] He came to the throne in 814 but it was not until 821 that he had suppressed revolts fromfeudatories and ministers. Amoghavarsha I made peace with theWestern Ganga dynasty by giving them his two daughters in marriage, and then defeated the invadingEastern Chalukyas at Vingavalli and assumed the titleViranarayana.[75][76] His rule was not as militant as that of Govinda III as he preferred to maintain friendly relations with his neighbours, the Gangas, the Eastern Chalukyas and the Pallavas with whom he also cultivated marital ties. His era was an enriching one for the arts, literature and religion. Widely seen as the most famous of the Rashtrakuta Emperors,Amoghavarsha I was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and Sanskrit.[77][78] HisKavirajamarga is considered an important landmark in Kannada poetics andPrashnottara Ratnamalika in Sanskrit is a writing of high merit and was later translated into the Tibetan language.[79] Because of his religious temperament, his interest in the arts and literature and his peace-loving nature, he has been compared to the emperorAshoka and called "Ashoka of the South".[80]
During the rule ofKrishna II, the empire faced a revolt from the Eastern Chalukyas and its size decreased to the area including most of the WesternDeccan and Gujarat.[81] Krishna II ended the independent status of the Gujarat branch and brought it under direct control from Manyakheta.Indra III recovered the dynasty's fortunes in central India by defeating the Kingdom of Malwa and then invaded thedoab region of theGanges andJamuna rivers. He also defeated the dynasty's traditional enemies, the Pratiharas and the Palas, while maintaining his influence overVengi.[81][82][83] The effect of his victories in Kannauj lasted several years according to the 930 copper plate inscription of EmperorGovinda IV.[84][85] After a succession of weak kings during whose reigns the empire lost control of territories in the north and east,Krishna III the last great ruler consolidated the empire so that it stretched from theNarmada River toKaveri River and included the northern Tamil country (Tondaimandalam) while levying tribute on the king of Ceylon.[86][87][88][89][90]
In 972,[91] during the rule ofKhottiga Amoghavarsha, the Malwa KingSiyaka Harsha attacked the empire and plundered Manyakheta, the capital of the Rashtrakutas. This seriously undermined the reputation of the Rastrakuta Empire and consequently led to its downfall.[92] The final decline was sudden asTailapa II, a feudatory of the Rashtrakuta ruling from Tardavadi province in modernBijapur district, declared himself independent by taking advantage of this defeat.[93][94] Indra IV, the last emperor, committedSallekhana (fasting unto death practised by Jain monks) atShravanabelagola. With the fall of the Rashtrakutas, their feudatories and related clans in the Deccan and northern India declared independence. TheWestern Chalukyas annexed Manyakheta and made it their capital until 1015 and built an impressive empire in the Rashtrakuta heartland during the 11th century. The focus of dominance shifted to theKrishna River –Godavari River doab calledVengi. The former feudatories of the Rashtrakutas in western Deccan were brought under control of the Chalukyas, and the hitherto-suppressed Cholas of Tanjore became their arch enemies in the south.[95]
In conclusion, the rise of Rashtrakutas ofManyakheta had a great impact on India, even on India's north. Sulaiman (851),Al-Masudi (944) and Ibn Khurdadba (912) wrote that their empire was the largest in contemporary India and Sulaiman further called it one among the four great contemporary empires of the world.[96][97][98] According to the travelogues of the Arabs Al Masudi and Ibn Khordidbih of the 10th century, "most of the kings of Hindustan turned their faces towards the Rashtrakuta king while they were praying, and they prostrated themselves before his ambassadors. The Rashtrakuta king was known as the "King of kings" (Rajadhiraja) who possessed the mightiest of armies and whose domains extended from Konkan to Sind."[99] Some historians have called these times an "Age of Imperial Kannauj". Since the Rashtrakutas successfully captured Kannauj, levied tribute on its rulers and presented themselves as masters of North India, the era could also be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka".[98] During their political expansion into central and northern India in the 8th to the 10th centuries, the Rashtrakutas or their relatives created several kingdoms that either ruled during the reign of the parent empire or continued to rule for centuries after its fall or came to power much later. Well known among these were the Rashtrakutas ofGujarat (757–888),[100] theRattas ofSaundatti (875–1230) in modern Karnataka,[101] the Gahadavalas of Kannauj (1068–1223),[102] the Rashtrakutas ofRajasthan (known as Rajputana) and ruling from Hastikundi or Hathundi (893–996),[103] Dahal (nearJabalpur),[104]Rathores of Mandore (nearJodhpur), theRathores of Dhanop,[105] Rashtraudha dynasty of Mayuragiri in modern Maharashtra[106] and Rashtrakutas of Kannauj.[107]Rajadhiraja Chola's conquest of the island of Ceylon in the early 11th century CE led to the fall of four kings there. According to historian K. Pillay, one of them, King Madavarajah of theJaffna kingdom, was an usurper from the Rashtrakuta dynasty.[108]
| Part ofa series on the |
| History of Karnataka |
|---|
 |
Categories |
Inscriptions and other literary records indicate the Rashtrakutas selected the crown prince based on heredity. The crown did not always pass on to the eldest son. Abilities were considered more important than age and chronology of birth, as exemplified by the crowning of Govinda III who was the third son of king Dhruva Dharavarsha. The most important position under the king was the Chief Minister (Mahasandhivigrahi) whose position came with five insignia commensurate with his position namely, a flag, a conch, a fan, a white umbrella, a large drum and five musical instruments calledPanchamahashabdas. Under him was the commander (Dandanayaka), the foreign minister (Mahakshapataladhikrita) and a prime minister (Mahamatya orPurnamathya), all of whom were usually associated with one of the feudatory kings and must have held a position in government equivalent to a premier.[109] AMahasamantha was a feudatory or higher ranking regal officer. All cabinet ministers were well versed in political science (Rajneeti) and possessed military training. There were cases where women supervised significant areas as when Revakanimaddi, daughter ofAmoghavarsha I, administered EdathoreVishaya.
The kingdom was divided intoMandala orRashtras (provinces). ARashtra was ruled by a Rashtrapathi who on occasion was the emperor himself. Amoghavarsha I's empire had sixteenRashtras. Under aRashtra was aVishaya (district) overseen by a Vishayapathi. Trusted ministers sometimes ruled more than aRashtra. For example, Bankesha, a commander ofAmoghavarsha I headed severalRashtras, besides rulingBanavasi which included 12,000 villages in that territory, lesserRashtras included: Kunduru (500), Belvola (300), Puligere (300) and Kundarge (70). Below theVishaya was theNadu looked after by theNadugowda (or Nadugavunda); sometimes there were two such officials, one assuming the position through heredity and another appointed centrally. The lowest division was aGrama or village administered by aGramapathi orPrabhu Gavunda.[110]
The Rashtrakuta army consisted of large contingents of infantry, horsemen, and elephants. A standing army was always ready for war in a cantonment (Sthirabhuta Kataka) in the regal capital of Manyakheta. Large armies were also maintained by the feudatory kings who were expected to contribute to the defence of the empire in case of war. Chieftains and all the officials also served as commanders whose postings were transferable if the need arose.[111]
The Rashtrakutas issued coins (minted in anAkkashale) such asSuvarna,Drammas in silver and gold weighing 65 grains,Kalanju weighing 48 grains,Gadyanaka weighing 96 grains,Kasu weighing 15 grains,Manjati with 2.5 grains andAkkam of 1.25 grain.[112]
The Rashtrakuta economy was sustained by its natural and agricultural produce, its manufacturing revenues and moneys gained from its conquests. Cotton was the chief crop of the regions of southern Gujarat,Khandesh and Berar. Minnagar, Gujarat,Ujjain,Paithan and Tagara were important centres of textile industry.Muslin cloth were manufactured in Paithan andWarangal. The cotton yarn and cloth was exported fromBharoch. Whitecalicos were manufactured inBurhanpur and Berar and exported toPersia,Byzantines,Khazaria,Arabia andEgypt.[113] The Konkan region, ruled by the feudatory Silharas, produced large quantities ofbetel leaves, coconut and rice while the lush forests of Mysore, ruled by the feudatoryGangas, produced such woods as sandal, timber, teak and ebony. Incense and perfumes were exported from the ports ofThana and Saimur.[114]
The Deccan was rich in minerals, though its soil was not as fertile as that of the Gangetic plains. The copper mines ofCudappah,Bellary, Chanda, Buldhana, Narsingpur,Ahmadnagar, Bijapur andDharwar were an important source of income and played an important role in the economy.[115] Diamonds were mined in Cudappah, Bellary,Kurnool andGolconda; the capital Manyakheta and Devagiri were important diamond and jewellery trading centres. The leather industry and tanning flourished in Gujarat and some regions of northern Maharashtra.Mysore with its vast elephant herds was important for the ivory industry.[116]
The Rashtrakuta empire controlled most of the western sea board of the subcontinent which facilitated its maritime trade.[114] The Gujarat branch of the empire earned a significant income from the port of Bharoch, one of the most prominent ports in the world at that time.[117] The empire's chief exports were cotton yarn, cotton cloth, muslins, hides, mats, indigo, incense, perfumes,betel nuts, coconuts, sandal, teak, timber, sesame oil and ivory. Its major imports were pearls, gold, dates from Arabia, slaves,Italian wines, tin, lead,topaz,storax, sweet clover, flint glass,antimony, gold and silver coins, singing boys and girls (for the entertainment of the royalty) from other lands. Trading in horses was an important and profitable business, monopolised by the Arabs and some local merchants.[118] The Rashtrakuta government levied a shipping tax of one goldenGadyanaka on all foreign vessels embarking to any other ports and a fee of one silverCtharna ( a coin) on vessels travelling locally.[119]
Artists and craftsman operated as corporations (guilds) rather than as individual business. Inscriptions mention guilds of weavers, oilmen, artisans, basket and mat makers and fruit sellers. ASaundatti inscription refers to an assemblage of all the people of a district headed by the guilds of the region.[120] Some guilds were considered superior to others, just as some corporations were, and received royal charters determining their powers and privileges. Inscriptions suggest these guilds had their own militia to protect goods in transit and, like village assemblies, they operated banks that lent money to traders and businesses.[121]
The government's income came from five principal sources: regular taxes, occasional taxes, fines, income taxes, miscellaneous taxes and tributes from feudatories.[122] An emergency tax was imposed occasionally and were applicable when the kingdom was under duress, such as when it faced natural calamities, or was preparing for war or overcoming war's ravages. Income tax included taxes oncrown land, wasteland, specific types of trees considered valuable to the economy, mines, salt, treasures unearthed by prospectors.[123] Additionally, customary presents were given to the king or royal officers on such festive occasions as marriage or the birth of a son.[124]
The king determined the tax levels based on need and circumstances in the kingdom while ensuring that an undue burden was not placed on the peasants.[125] The land owner or tenant paid a variety of taxes, including land taxes, produce taxes and payment of the overhead for maintenance of the Gavunda (village head). Land taxes were varied, based on type of land, its produce and situation and ranged from 8% to 16%. A Banavasi inscription of 941 mentions reassessment of land tax due to the drying up of an old irrigation canal in the region.[126] The land tax may have been as high as 20% to pay for expenses of a military frequently at war.[127] In most of the kingdom, land taxes were paid in goods and services and rarely was cash accepted.[128] A portion of all taxes earned by the government (usually 15%) was returned to the villages for maintenance.[126]
Taxes were levied on artisans such as potters, sheep herders, weavers, oilmen, shopkeepers, stall owners, brewers and gardeners. Taxes on perishable items such as fish, meat, honey, medicine, fruits and essentials like fuel was as high as 16%.[119] Taxes on salt and minerals were mandatory although the empire did not claim sole ownership of mines, implying that private mineral prospecting and the quarrying business may have been active.[129] The state claimed all such properties whose deceased legal owner had no immediate family to make an inheritance claim.[130] Other miscellaneous taxes included ferry and house taxes. Only Brahmins and their temple institutions were taxed at a lower rate.[131]
The Rashtrakuta kings supported the popular religions of the day in the traditional spirit of religious tolerance.[132] Scholars have offered various arguments regarding which specific religion the Rashtrakutas favoured, basing their evidence oninscriptions, coins and contemporary literature. Some claim the Rashtrakutas were inclined towardsJainism since many of the scholars who flourished in their courts and wrote inSanskrit,Kannada, and a few inApabhramsha andPrakrit were Jains.[133] The Rashtrakutas built well-known Jain temples at locations such as Lokapura inBagalkot district and their loyal feudatory, theWestern Ganga Dynasty, built Jain monuments atShravanabelagola andKambadahalli. Scholars have suggested that Jainism was a principal religion at the very heart of the empire in modern Karnataka, and accounted for more than 30% of the population and dominating the culture of the region.[134] Numerous Jain monks flourished during the rule of the Rashtrakutas, includingAryanandi,Virasena,Jinasena,Gunasena,Gunabhadra, andLokasena, who served as gurus in the Rashtrakuta court. Under their patronage, numerous Kannada, Sanskrit Jain texts were composed, including theDhavala,Adi Purana, andMahapurana.[135][136] King Amoghavarsha was a disciple of the Jainacharya Jinasena and wrote in his religious writing,Prashnottara Ratnamalika, "having bowed to Vardhamana (Mahavira), He is also credited with composing "Kavirajamarga" along with his guru. The mathematicianMahaviracharya wrote in hisGanita Sarasangraha, "The subjects under Amoghavarsha are happy and the land yields plenty of grain. May the kingdom of King Nripatunga Amoghavarsha, follower of Jainism ever increase far and wide." The Jain MonkKumudendu Muni, in his writing "Siribhoovalaya", claims to be the guru of Amoghavarsha and the vassal Ganga kingShivamara II.[137][138] According to historian Altekar, Amoghavarsha was so deeply moved by a sense of renunciation (vairagya) he handed over the kingdom toKrishna II and spent his final days withAcharya Jinasena.[139] It is also suggested that he may have even become a monk and ultimately takenSallekhana (ritual fasting unto death),[140] and the last king of the dynastyIndra IV, renounced royal life and became aJain monk[141] and performedSallekhana atShravanabelagola on 20 March 982 CE.[142] With Indra IV’s death, the main line of theRashtrakuta dynasty came to an end. However, their familial descendants, such as theShilaharas andRattas, continued the legacy of patronizing Jainism.[143][144]
However, according to historian Rue, the Rashtrakuta kings also patronised theHindu sects ofShaivism,Vaishnavism andShaktism. Some of their grants and coins have images of deities associated with the Hinduism.[7] According to the historians Chopra, Ravindran and Subrahmanian, Amoghavarsha was deeply influenced by Jainism though he worshiped Hindu gods and goddesses.[145] According Suryanatha Kamath, the Rashtrakutas were followers of the Vedic religions, asGaruda was the royal emblem of the dynasty, He further states that Amoghavarsha may have been influenced by Jainism, it may have been only in his old age.[146] But Sadasiva Altekar, and P.B Desai argue that he became a Jain monk in his old age.[147][148] The historian Radhey Shyam Chaurasia claims Amoghavarsha followed the Jain religion and patronised the Digambara sect of Jainism.[149] Many of their inscriptions begin by specifying the temple or religious institution to which the grant or donation was being made.[150] TheSanjan inscriptions tells of King Amoghavarsha I sacrificing a finger from his left hand at theLakshmi temple atKolhapur. This record, according to Kamath is a document testifying his devotion to the Hindu goddess Mahalakshmi. However according to Desai and Settar, this is a misinterpretation and the inscription uses the word "bali", which in context means "dana" (gift or donation), indicating he made a donation for the temple to avert a calamity in his kingdom.[151][152] The temple itself is believed to have originally been dedicated toPadmāvatī the consort (Yakshin) of TirthankaraParshvanatha. Historian Paul Dundas opines that during Amoghavarsha’s time, the site may have been associated with Jain worship, particularly Yakshi Padmavati, and only later became identified with the Hindu goddess Mahalakshmi.[153][154] King Dantidurga performed theHiranyagarbha (a ritual in Hinduism), and the Sanjan andCambay plates of the rule of KingGovinda IV mentionBrahmins performing such rituals asRajasuya,Vajapeya andAgnishtoma.[155] An earlycopper plate grant of King Dantidurga (753) shows an image of god Shiva and the coins of his successor, King Krishna I (768), bear the legendParama Maheshwara (another name for Shiva). The kings' titles such asVeeranarayana showed their Vaishnava leanings. Their flag had the sign of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, perhaps copied from the Badami Chalukyas.[156] The famous Kailasa temple at Ellora built to honor the Hindu god Shiva and other rock-cut caves attributed to them show that the Hinduism was flourishing under their patronage.[155] Their family deity was a goddess by nameLatana (also known asRashtrashyena,ManasaVindyavasini) who took the form of a falcon to save the kingdom.[157] They built temples with icons and ornamentation that satisfied the needs of different faiths. The temple at Salotgi was meant for followers of Shiva and Vishnu and the temple at Kargudri was meant for worshipers of Shiva, Vishnu and Bhaskara (Surya, the sun god).[133]
In short, the Rashtrakuta rule was tolerant to multiple popular religions, Jainism, Vaishnavaism and Shaivism. Buddhism too found support and was popular in places such asDambal andBalligavi, although it had declined significantly by this time.[4] The decline of Buddhism in South India began in the 8th century with the spread ofAdi Shankara'sAdvaita philosophy.[158]Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms andArab lands.JummaMasjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century[159] and many Muslims lived and mosques flourished on the coasts, specifically in towns such asKayalpattanam andNagore. Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known asMappilas (Moplahs) and were actively involved inhorse trading and manning shipping fleets.[160] The Rastrakuta kings were praised by an Arab traveller,Al-Masʿūdī, for supporting the settlement of Muslim traders in the Konkan region and allowing them to practice Islam. The Rastrakutas were also noted for providing great support to them and establishment of mosques in port towns located in Konkan by him during the early 10th century.[161] The Saymur district was inhabited by about 10,000 Muslims according to Al-Masʿūdī.[162]
Chronicles mention morecastes than the four commonly known castes in the Hindu social system, some as many as seven castes.[163]Al-Biruni, the famed 10th century Persian / central AsianIndologist mentions sixteen castes including the four basic castes ofBrahmins,Kshatriya,Vaishya andSudras.[164] TheZakaya orLahud caste consisted of communities specialising in dance and acrobatics.[165] People in the professions of sailing, hunting, weaving, cobblery, basket making and fishing belonged to specific castes or subcastes. TheAntyajas caste provided many menial services to the wealthy. Brahmins enjoyed the highest status in Rashtrakuta society; only those Kshatriyas in theSat-Kshatriya sub-caste (noble Kshatriyas) were higher in status.[166][167]
The careers of Brahmins usually related to education, the judiciary, astrology, mathematics, poetry and philosophy[168] or the occupation of hereditary administrative posts.[169] Also Brahmins increasingly practised non-Brahminical professions (agriculture, trade in betel nuts and martial posts).[170] Capital punishment, although widespread, was not given to the royal Kshatriya sub-castes or to Brahmins found guilty of heinous crimes (as the killing of a Brahmin in medieval Hindu India was itself considered a heinous crime). As an alternate punishment to enforce the law a Brahmin's right hand and left foot was severed, leaving that person disabled.[171]
By the 9th century, kings from all the four castes had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India.[172] Admitting Kshatriyas toVedic schools along with Brahmins was customary, but the children of the Vaishya andShudra castes were not allowed. Landownership by people of all castes is recorded in inscriptions[173] Intercaste marriages in the higher castes were only between highly placed Kshatriya girls and Brahmin boys,[174] but was relatively frequent among other castes.[175] Intercaste functions were rare and dining together between people of various castes was avoided.[176]
Joint families were the norm but legal separations between brothers and even father and son have been recorded in inscriptions.[177] Women and daughters had rights over property and land as there are inscriptions recording the sale of land by women.[178] The arranged marriage system followed a strict policy of early marriage for women. Among Brahmins, boys married at or below 16 years of age and the brides chosen for them were 12 or younger. This age policy was not strictly followed by other castes.[179]Sati (a custom in which a dead man's widow wouldimmolate herself on her husband's funeralpyre) was practised but the few examples noted in inscriptions were mostly in the royal families.[180] The system of shaving the heads of widows was infrequent as epigraphs note that widows were allowed to grow their hair but decorating it was discouraged.[181] The remarriage of a widow was rare among the upper castes and more accepted among the lower castes.[182]
In the general population men wore two simple pieces of cloth, a loose garment on top and a garment worn like adhoti for the lower part of the body. Only kings could wearturbans, a practice that spread to the masses much later.[183] Dancing was a popular entertainment and inscriptions speak of royal women being charmed by dancers, both male and female, in the king's palace.Devadasis (girls were "married" to a deity or temple) were often present in temples.[184] Other recreational activities included attending animal fights of the same or different species. TheAtakur inscription (hero stone,virgal) was made for the favourite hound of the feudatory Western Ganga King Butuga II that died fighting a wild boar in a hunt.[185] There are records of game preserves for hunting by royalty. Astronomy and astrology were well developed as subjects of study,[185] and there were many superstitious beliefs such as catching a snake alive proved a woman's chastity. Old persons suffering from incurable diseases preferred to end their lives by drowning in the sacred waters of a pilgrim site or by a ritual burning.[186]
Kannada became more prominent as a literary language during the Rashtrakuta rule with its script and literature showing remarkable growth, dignity and productivity.[35][38][40] This period effectively marked the end of the classical Prakrit and Sanskrit era. Court poets and royalty created eminent works in Kannada and Sanskrit that spanned such literary forms as prose, poetry, rhetoric, the Jain epics and the life history oftirthankars. Bilingual writers such asAsaga gained fame,[187] and noted scholars such as theMahaviracharya wrote on pure mathematics in the court of King Amoghavarsha I.[188][189]
Kavirajamarga (850) by KingAmoghavarsha I is the earliest available book on rhetoric and poetics in Kannada,[78][79] though it is evident from this book that native styles of Kannada composition had already existed in previous centuries.[190]Kavirajamarga is a guide to poets (Kavishiksha) that aims to standardise these various styles. The book refers to early Kannada prose and poetry writers such asDurvinita, perhaps the 6th-century monarch ofWestern Ganga dynasty.[191][192][193]
The Jain writerAdikavi Pampa, widely regarded as one of the most influentialKannada writers, became famous forAdipurana (941). Written inchampu (mixed prose-verse style) style, it is the life history of the first JaintirthankaraRishabhadeva. Pampa's other notable work wasVikramarjuna Vijaya (941), the author's version of the Hindu epic,Mahabharata, withArjuna as the hero.[194] Also calledPampa Bharata, it is a eulogy of the writer's patron, KingChalukya Arikeseri ofVemulawada (a Rashtrakuta feudatory), comparing the king's virtues favourably to those of Arjuna. Pampa demonstrates such a command of classical Kannada that scholars over the centuries have written many interpretations of his work.[195]
Another notable Jain writer in Kannada wasSri Ponna, patronised by King Krishna III and famed forShantipurana, his account of the life of Shantinatha, the 16th Jain tirthankara. He earned the titleUbhaya Kavichakravathi (supreme poet in two languages) for his command over both Kannada and Sanskrit. His other writings in Kannada wereBhuvanaika-ramaabhyudaya,Jinaksharamale andGatapratyagata.[78][196] Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna are called "gems of Kannada literature".[194]
Prose works inSanskrit was prolific during this era as well.[38] Important mathematical theories and axioms were postulated byMahaviracharya, a native ofGulbarga, who belonged to the Karnataka mathematical tradition and was patronised by King Amoghavarsha I.[188] His greatest contribution wasGanitasarasangraha, a writing in 9 chapters. Somadevasuri of 950 wrote in the court ofArikesari II, a feudatory of RashtrakutaKrishna III inVemulavada. He was the author ofYasastilaka champu,Nitivakyamrita and other writings. The main aim of thechampu writing was to propagate Jain tenets and ethics. The second writing reviews the subject matter ofArthashastra from the standpoint of Jain morals in a clear and pithy manner.[197] Ugraditya, a Jain ascetic from Hanasoge in the modern Mysore district wrote a medical treatise calledKalyanakaraka. He delivered a discourse in the court of Amoghavarsha I encouraging abstinence from animal products and alcohol in medicine.[198][199]
Trivikrama was a noted scholar in the court of King Indra III. His classics wereNalachampu (915), the earliest in champu style in Sanskrit,Damayanti Katha,Madalasachampu and Begumra plates. Legend has it that GoddessSaraswati helped him in his effort to compete with a rival in the king's court.[197]Jinasena was the spiritual preceptor andguru ofAmoghavarsha I. A theologian, his contributions areDhavala andJayadhavala (written with another theologianVirasena). These writings are named after their patron king who was also called Athishayadhavala. Other contributions from Jinasena wereAdipurana, later completed by his disciple Gunabhadra,Harivamsha andParshvabhyudaya.[188]
The Rashtrakutas contributed much to the architectural heritage of the Deccan. Art historian Adam Hardy categorises their building activity into three schools: Ellora, around Badami, Aihole and Pattadakal, and at Sirval near Gulbarga.[200]The Rashtrakuta contributions to art and architecture are reflected in the splendid rock-cut cave temples at Ellora and Elephanta, areas also occupied by Jain monks, located in present-dayMaharashtra. The Ellora site was originally part of a complex of 34 Buddhist caves probably created in the first half of the 6th century whose structural details showPandyan influence. Cave temples occupied by Hindus are from later periods.[201]
The Rashtrakutas renovated these Buddhist caves and re-dedicated the rock-cut shrines. Amoghavarsha I espoused Jainism and there are five Jain cave temples atEllora ascribed to his period.[citation needed] The most extensive and sumptuous of the Rashtrakuta works atEllora is their creation of the monolithicKailasanath Temple, a splendid achievement confirming the "Balhara" status as "one among the four principal Kings of the world".[97] The walls of the temple have marvellous sculptures from Hindu mythology includingRavana,Shiva andParvathi while the ceilings have paintings.
The Kailasanath Temple project was commissioned by King Krishna I after the Rashtrakuta rule had spread into South India from the Deccan. The architectural style used isKarnata Dravida according to Adam Hardy. It does not contain any of theShikharas common to theNagara style and was built on the same lines as the Virupaksha temple atPattadakal in Karnataka.[202] According to art historian Vincent Smith, the achievement at the Kailasanath temple is considered an architectural consummation of the monolithic rock-cut temple and deserves to be considered one of the wonders of the world.[203] According to art historian Percy Brown, as an accomplishment of art, the Kailasanath temple is considered an unrivalled work of rock architecture, a monument that has always excited and astonished travellers.[204]
While some scholars have claimed the architecture atElephanta is attributable to theKalachuri, others claim that it was built during the Rashtrakuta period.[205] Some of the sculptures such asNataraja andSadashiva excel in beauty and craftsmanship even that of the Ellora sculptures.[206] Famous sculptures at Elephanta includeArdhanarishvara andMaheshamurthy. The latter, a three faced bust of Lord Shiva, is 25 feet (8 m) tall and considered one of the finest pieces of sculpture in India. It is said that, in the world of sculpture, few works of art depicting a divinity are as balanced.[207]
InKarnataka their most famous temples are theKashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple atPattadakal, aUNESCO World Heritage site.[208][209] Other well-known temples are the Parameshwara temple at Konnur, Brahmadeva temple at Savadi, the Settavva, Kontigudi II, Jadaragudi and Ambigeragudi temples atAihole, Mallikarjuna temple at Ron, Andhakeshwara temple at Huli (Hooli), Someshwara temple atSogal, Jain temples at Lokapura,Navalinga temple atKuknur, Kumaraswamy temple at Sandur, numerous temples at Shirival inGulbarga,[210] and theTrikuteshwara temple atGadag which was later expanded byKalyani Chalukyas. Archeological study of these temples show some have the stellar (multigonal) plan later to be used profusely by theHoysalas atBelur andHalebidu.[211] One of the richest traditions in Indian architecture took shape in the Deccan during this time which Adam Hardy callsKarnata dravida style as opposed to traditional Dravida style.[212]
With the ending of theGupta dynasty in northern India in the early 6th century, major changes began taking place in the Deccan south of the Vindyas and in the southern regions of India. These changes were not only political but also linguistic and cultural. The royal courts of peninsular India (outside ofTamilakam) interfaced between the increasing use of the localKannada language and the expanding Sanskritic culture. Inscriptions, including those that were bilingual, demonstrate the use of Kannada as the primary administrative language in conjunction with Sanskrit.[33][34] Government archives used Kannada for recording pragmatic information relating to grants of land.[213] The local language formed thedesi (popular) literature while literature in Sanskrit was moremarga (formal). Educational institutions and places of higher learning (ghatikas) taught in Sanskrit, the language of the learned Brahmins, while Kannada increasingly became the speech of personal expression of devotional closeness of a worshipper to a private deity. The patronage Kannada received from rich and literate Jains eventually led to its use in thedevotional movements of later centuries.[214]
Contemporaneous literature and inscriptions show that Kannada was not only popular in the modern Karnataka region but had spread further north into present day southern Maharashtra and to the northern Deccan by the 8th century.[215] Kavirajamarga, the work on poetics, refers to the entire region between theKaveri River and theGodavari River as "Kannada country".[216][217][218] Higher education in Sanskrit included the subjects ofVeda,Vyakarana (grammar),Jyotisha (astronomy and astrology),Sahitya (literature),Mimansa (Exegesis),Dharmashastra (law),Puranas (ritual), andNyaya (logic). An examination of inscriptions from this period shows that theKavya (classical) style of writing was popular. The awareness of the merits and defects in inscriptions by the archivists indicates that even they, though mediocre poets, had studied standard classical literature in Sanskrit.[219] An inscription in Kannada by KingKrishna III, written in a poetic Kanda metre, has been found as far away asJabalpur in modernMadhya Pradesh.[32] Kavirajamarga, a work on poetics in Kannada byAmoghavarsha I, shows that the study of poetry was popular in the Deccan during this time. Trivikrama's Sanskrit writing,Nalachampu, is perhaps the earliest in thechampu style from the Deccan.[220]
Map 18.2 Tripartite struggle over Kannauj
It is most likely that they were Kannada-speaking military aristocrats settled at a strategic point in modern-day Maharasthra by the Chalukyas or some other powerful group, perhaps to keep an eye on trade routes and various tribal peoples.
Al Masudi praised the Balhara rulers or the Rashtrakutas for encouraging Muslim merchants to settle in Konkan, and allowing the practice of their religion. The result was that Al Masudi noted in the early tenth century that Muslim merchants in the Konkan coast were given excellent support by the Rashtrakuta rulers (Balhara kings in the Arab accounts, so named after the Sanskrit term Vallabharaja) are credited with the construction of mosques in the port towns of Konkan.
The Rashtrakutas showed great hospitality to foreigners, and especially to Muslim traders from Arabia and Iran. The latter were permitted to settle in the kingdom's domains; and, according to the Arab traveller, Al-Masudi, nearly 10,000 Muslims lived in the district of Saymur and were known as the bayasiras, or 'Muslims born in Al-Hind of Muslim parents' (Wink 1990: 69).
Books
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link){{citation}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link){{citation}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Web
Capital:Amaravati | |
| Topics | |
| Symbols |
|
| Regions | |
| Districts | |
| Metropolis | |
| Cities | |
| Transport | |
| Tourism | |
| History | |
| Related lists | |
| Topics | |
|---|---|
| Dynasties | |
| Districts |
|
| Commissionerates | |
| Major cities | |
| Tourism | |
| Municipal corporations | |
| Related lists | |
