Ramana Maharshi (Sanskrit pronunciation:[ˈɾɐ.mɐ.ɳɐmɐˈɦɐɾ.ʂi];Tamil:இரமண மகரிஷி,romanized: Iramaṇa Makarici; 30 December 1879 – 14 April 1950) was an IndianHindusage[1] andjivanmukta (liberated being).[2] He was bornVenkataraman Iyer, but is mostly known by the name Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi.[3][note 1]
He was born inTiruchuli,Tamil Nadu,India in 1879. In 1895, an attraction to the sacred hillArunachala and the 63Nayanmars was aroused in him,[4] and in 1896, at the age of 16, he had a "death-experience" in which he became aware of a "current" or "force" (avesam) which he recognised as his true "I" or "self",[web 1][5] and which he later identified with "the personal God, orIswara",[web 1][note 2] that is,Shiva. This resulted in a state that he later described as "the state of mind of Iswara or the jnani".[web 1][note 3] Six weeks later he left his uncle's home in Madurai, and journeyed to the holy mountainArunachala, inTiruvannamalai, where he took on the role of asannyasin (though not formally initiated), and remained for the rest of his life.
He attracted devotees that regarded him as anavatar ofShiva and came to him fordarshan ("the sight of God"). In later years, anashram grew up around him, where visitors receivedupadesa ("spiritual instruction")[7] bysitting silently in his company or by asking questions.[8] Since the 1930s his teachings have been popularised in the West.[9]
Ramana Maharshi approved a number of paths and practices,[3] but recommendedself-enquiry as the principal means to remove ignorance and abide in self-awareness,[web 2][10] together withbhakti (devotion) or surrender to the Self.[web 2]
Ramana Maharshi was born Venkataraman Iyer on 30 December 1879 in the villageTiruchuzhi nearAruppukkottai,Virudhunagar District inTamil Nadu,India. He was the second of four children in an orthodoxHinduBrahmin family. His father was SundaramIyer (1848–1890), from the lineage ofParashara, and his mother was Azhagammal (1864–1922). He had two brothers Nagaswami (1877–1900) and Nagasundaram (1886–1953), along with a younger sister Alamelu (1887–1953). His father was a courtpleader.[11]
Both a paternal uncle of his father and his father's brother had become sannyasins.[12] Venkataraman's family belonged to theSmarta denomination, and regularly worshipedShiva,Vishnu,Ganesha,Surya andShakti in their home.[13][14]
When Venkataraman was seven he had hisupanayana,[15] the traditional initiation of the three uppervarnas into Brahmanical learning and the knowledge of Self. He had a very good memory, and was able to recall information after hearing it once, an ability he used to memorise Tamil poems.[15]
Narasimha notes that Venkataraman used to sleep very deeply, not waking from loud sounds, nor even when his body was beaten by others.[16][17] When he was about twelve years old, he may have experienced spontaneous deep meditative states.Sri Ramana Vijayam, the Tamil biography that first appeared in the 1920s, describes a period a few years before the death-experience in Madurai:
Some incomplete practice from a past birth was clinging to me. I would be putting attention solely within, forgetting the body. Sometimes I would be sitting in one place, but when I regained normal consciousness and got up, I would notice that I was lying down in a different narrow space [to the one where I had first sat down].[note 4]
When he was about eleven his father sent him to live with his paternal uncle Subbaiyar inDindigul as he wanted his sons to be educated in the English language, so that they would be eligible to entergovernment service. OnlyTamil was taught at the village school in Tiruchuzhi,[15] which he attended for three years.[18] In 1891, when his uncle was transferred toMadurai, Venkataraman and his elder brother Nagaswami moved with him. In Dindigul, Venkataraman attended a Hindu School where English was taught,[15] and stayed there for a year.[18]
His father, Sundaram Iyer, died suddenly on 18 February 1892.[19] After his father's death, the family split up; Venkataraman and Nagaswami stayed with Subbaiyar in Madurai.[12]
Venkataraman first attended Scott's Middle School and then the American Mission High School where he became acquainted with Christianity.[20]
In November 1895 Venkataraman realised that Arunachala, the sacred mountain, was a real place.[21] He had known of its existence from an early age, and was overwhelmed by the realisation that it really existed.[21] During this time he also readSekkizhar'sPeriyapuranam, a book that describes the lives of the 63Nayanmars, which "made a great impression" on him,[22][web 3] and revealed to him that "Divine Union" is possible.[21] According to Osborne, a new current of awareness started to awaken during his visits to theMeenakshi Temple atMadurai, "a state of blissful consciousness transcending both the physical and mental plane and yet compatible with full use of the physical and mental faculties".[23] But Ramana Maharshi later stated that he remained uninterested in religion or spirituality until his awakening eight months later.[web 3]
According to Narasimha, in July 1896,[22][note 5] at age 16, he had a sudden fear of death. He was struck by "a flash of excitement" or "heat", like someavesam, a "current" or "force" that seemed to possess him,[web 1] while his body became rigid. A process ofself-enquiry was initiated, asking himself, "what it is that dies?" He concluded the body dies, but this "current" or "force" remains alive, and recognised this "current" or "force" as hisSelf, which he later identified with "the personal God, orIswara".[web 1][note 6][note 2]
In one of his rare written comments on this process Ramana Maharshi wrote, "inquiring withinWho is the seer? I saw the seer disappear leaving That alone which stands forever. No thought arose to sayI saw. How then could the thought arise to sayI did not see."[web 5]
Later in life, he called his death experienceakrama mukti, "sudden liberation", as opposed to thekrama mukti, "gradual liberation" as in the Vedanta path ofjnana yoga.[web 3][note 7] It resulted in a state of mind which he later described as "the state of mind of Iswara or the jnani:"[web 1]
After reading the language of the sacred books, I see it may be termed suddha manas [pure mind], akhandakara vritti [unbroken experience], prajna [true knowledge] etc.; that is, the state of mind of Iswara or the jnani."[web 1]
After this event, he lost interest in school studies, friends, and relations. He was absent-minded at school, "imagining and expecting God would suddenly drop down from Heaven before me".[web 3] Avoiding company, he preferred to sit alone, absorbed in concentration on this current or force,[31] and went daily to the Meenakshi Temple, ecstatically devoted to the images of the 63 Nayanmars and ofNataraja, wanting "the same grace as was shown to those saints",[web 3] praying that he "should have the same bhakti that they had"[web 3] and "[weeping] that God should give me the same grace He gave to those saints".[web 3][11][note 8]
Knowing his family would not permit him to become a sanyassin and leave home, Venkataraman slipped away, telling his brother he needed to attend a special class at school.[33] Venkataraman boarded the train on 29 August 1896 and reached Tiruvannamalai on 1 September 1896 where he remained for the rest of his life.[citation needed]
When Maharshi arrived inTiruvannamalai, he went to thetemple of Arunachaleswara.[34] He spent the first few weeks in the thousand-pillared hall, then shifted to other spots in the temple, and eventually to the Patala-lingam vault so that he could remain undisturbed. There, he spent days absorbed in such deepsamādhi that he was unaware of the bites of vermin and pests.Seshadri Swamigal, a local saint, discovered him in the underground vault and tried to protect him.[33] After about six weeks in the Patala-lingam vault, he was carried out and cleaned up. For the next two months he stayed in the Subramanya Shrine, so unaware of his body and surroundings that food had to be placed in his mouth to keep him from starving.
In February 1897, six months after his arrival at Tiruvannamalai, Ramana Maharshi moved to Gurumurtam, a temple about a mile away.[35] Shortly after his arrival a sadhu named Palaniswami went to see him.[36] Palaniswami's firstdarshan left him filled with peace and bliss, and from that time on, he served Ramana Maharshi as his permanent attendant. Besides physical protection, Palaniswami would also beg for alms, cook and prepare meals for himself and Ramana Maharshi, and care for him as needed.[37] In May 1898 Ramana Maharshi moved to a mango orchard next to Gurumurtam.[38]
Osborne wrote that during this time Ramana Maharshi completely neglected his body.[37] He also ignored the ants which bit him incessantly.[35] Gradually, despite Ramana Maharshi's desire for privacy, he attracted attention from visitors who admired his silence and austerities, bringing offerings and singing praises. Eventually a bamboo fence was built to protect him.[35]
While living at the Gurumurtam temple his family discovered his whereabouts. First, his uncle Nelliappa Iyer came and pleaded with him to return home, promising that the family would not disturb his ascetic life. Ramana Maharshi sat motionless, and eventually his uncle gave up.[39]
In September 1898 Ramana Maharshi moved to the Shiva-temple at Pavalakkunru, one of the eastern spurs of Arunachala. He refused to return even though his mother begged him to.[40]
Soon after this, in February 1899, Ramana Maharshi left the foothills to live in Arunachala.[41] He stayed briefly in Satguru Cave and Guhu Namasivaya Cave before taking up residence at Virupaksha Cave for the next 17 years, using Mango Tree cave during the summers, except for a six-month period at Pachaiamman Koil during the plague epidemic.[42]
In 1902, a government official named Sivaprakasam Pillai, with writing slate in hand, visited the young Swami in the hope of obtaining answers to questions about "How to know one's true identity". The fourteen questions he asked the young Swami and his answers formed Ramana Maharshi's first teachings onSelf-enquiry, the method for which he became widely known, and were eventually published asNan Yar?, or in English,Who am I?.[43]
Many visitors came to him and some became his devotees.Kavyakantha Sri Ganapati Sastri,[note 9] a Vedic scholar of repute in his age, with a deep knowledge of the Srutis, Sastras, Tantras, Yoga, and Agama systems, but lacking the personaldarshan of Shiva,[44] came to visit Ramana Maharshi in 1907. After receivingupadesa from him on self-enquiry, he proclaimed him asBhagavan Sri RamanaMaharshi. Ramana Maharshi was known by this name from then on.[45] Ganapati Sastri passed on these instructions to his own students, but later in life confessed that he had never been able to achieve permanent Self-abidance. Nevertheless, he was highly valued by Ramana Maharshi and played an important role in his life.[44]
In 1911, the first westerner, Frank Humphreys, then a police officer stationed in India, discovered Ramana Maharshi and wrote articles about him, which were first published inThe International Psychic Gazette in 1913.[46][note 10]
In an appendix toSelf realisation, Narasimha wrote that in 1912, while in the company of disciples, Ramana Maharshi had anepileptic seizure, in which his vision was suddenly impaired three times by a "white bright curtain" which covered a part of his vision. On the third instance, his vision was completely shut out, while his "head was swimming", and he felt his heart stop beating and his breathing seize. His skin turned blue, as if he was dead. This lasted for about ten or fifteen minutes, after which "a shock passed suddenly through the body", and his blood circulation and his respiration returned.[47] In response to "strange accounts" about this event, Ramana Maharshi later explained that it was aseizure, which he used to have occasionally, and that he did not bring it on himself.[48] According to Osborne, it "marked the final completion of Sri Bhagavan's return to full outer normality".[49]
In 1916, his mother Alagammal and younger brother Nagasundaram joined Ramana Maharshi at Tiruvannamalai and followed him when he moved to the larger Skandashram Cave, where Bhagavan lived until the end of 1922. His mother took up the life of asannyasin and Ramana Maharshi began to give her intense, personal instruction, while she took charge of the Ashram kitchen. Ramana Maharshi's younger brother, Nagasundaram, also became asannyasi, assuming the name Niranjanananda and becoming known as Chinnaswami (the younger Swami).
During this period, Ramana Maharshi composedThe Five Hymns to Arunachala, his magnum opus in devotional lyric poetry. The first hymn isAkshara Mana Malai.[translation 1] It was composed in Tamil in response to the request of a devotee for a song to be sung while wandering in the town for alms. TheAkshara Mana Malai (Marital Garland of Letters) tells, in glowing symbolism, of the love and union between the human soul and God, expressing the attitude of the soul that still aspires.[citation needed]
Starting in 1920, his mother's health deteriorated. She died on 19 May 1922 while Ramana Maharshi sat beside her.[citation needed]
From 1922 until his death in 1950, Ramana Maharshi lived inSri Ramanasramam, the ashram that developed around his mother's tomb.[50] Ramana Maharshi often walked from Skandashram to his mother's tomb. In December 1922, he did not return to Skandashram, and settled at the base of the Hill, and Sri Ramanasramam started to develop. At first, there was only one hut at thesamadhi, but in 1924 two huts were erected – one opposite thesamadhi and the other to the north. The so-called Old Hall was built in 1928, where Ramana Maharshi lived until 1949.[51]
Sri Ramanasramam grew to include a library, hospital, post-office and many other facilities. Ramana Maharshi displayed a natural talent for planning building projects. Annamalai Swami gave detailed accounts of this in his reminiscences.[52] Until 1938, Annamalai Swami was entrusted with the task of supervising the projects and received his instructions directly from Ramana Maharshi.
Ramana Maharshi led a modest and renunciate life. However, according to David Godman, who has written extensively about Ramana Maharshi, the popular image of him as a person who spent most of his time doing nothing except sitting silently in samadhi is highly inaccurate. From the period when an Ashram began to rise around him after his mother arrived, until his later years when his health failed, Ramana Maharshi was actually quite active in Ashram activities such as cooking and stitching leaf plates.[web 7]
In 1931 a biography of Ramana Maharshi,Self Realisation: The Life and Teachings of Ramana Maharshi, written by B. V. Narasimha, was published.[53] Ramana Maharshi then became relatively well known in and out of India after 1934 whenPaul Brunton, having first visited Ramana Maharshi in January 1931, published the bookA Search in Secret India.[54] In this book he describes how he was compelled by theParamacharya of Kanchi to meet Ramana Maharshi, his meeting with Ramana Maharshi, and the effect this meeting had on him. Brunton also describes how Ramana Maharshi's fame had spread, "so that pilgrims to the temple were often induced to go up the hill and see him before they returned home".[55] Brunton calls Ramana Maharshi "one of the last of India's spiritual supermen",[56] and describes his affection toward Ramana Maharshi:
I like him greatly because he is so simple and modest, when an atmosphere of authentic greatness lies so palpably around him; because he makes no claims to occult powers and hierophantic knowledge to impress the mystery loving nature of his countrymen; and because he is so totally without any traces of pretension that he strongly resists every effort to canonize him during his lifetime.[57]
While staying at Sri Ramanasramam, Brunton had an experience of a "sublimely all-embracing" awareness,[58] a "Moment of Illumination".[59] The book was a best-seller and introduced Ramana Maharshi to a wider audience in the west.[53] Resulting visitors includedParamahansa Yogananda,Somerset Maugham (whose 1944 novelThe Razor's Edge models its spiritual guru after Ramana Maharshi),[web 8]Mercedes de Acosta andArthur Osborne, the last of whom was the first editor ofMountain Path in 1964, the magazine published by Ramanasramam.
In November 1948, a tiny cancerous lump was found on Ramana Maharshi's arm and was removed in February 1949 by the ashram's doctor. Soon, another growth appeared, and an eminent surgeon performed another operation in March 1949 with radium applied. The doctor told Ramana Maharshi that a completeamputation of the arm to the shoulder was required to save his life, but he refused. Third and fourth operations were performed in August and December 1949, but only weakened him. Other systems of medicine were then tried; all proved fruitless and were stopped by the end of March when devotees gave up all hope. To devotees who begged him to cure himself for the sake of his followers, Ramana Maharshi is said to have replied, "Why are you so attached to this body? Let it go", and "Where can I go? I am here."[11] By April 1950, Ramana Maharshi was too weak to go to the hall and visiting hours were limited. Visitors would file past the small room where he spent his last days to get one final glimpse. He died on 14 April 1950 at 8:47 p.m.[web 9] At the same time a shooting star was seen, which impressed some of his devotees as asynchronicity.[60]
Sri Ramana Maharshi reclining in the Old Hall where he lived from 1927 to 1950
Ramana Maharshi was, and is, regarded by many as an outstanding enlightened being.[61] He was considered to be a charismatic person,[62][63] and attracted many devotees, some of whom saw him as anavatar and the embodiment of Shiva.
Many devotees visited Ramana Maharshi fordarshan,[64] the sight of a holy person or God incarnate, which is advantageous and transmits merit.[65][66] According to Flood, in Indian religions the guru is akin to the image or statue of a deity in the temple, and both possess power and a sacred energy.[65] According to Osborne, Ramana Maharshi regarded giving darshan as "his task in life", and said that he had to be accessible to all who came.[64] Even during his terminal illness at the end of his life, he demanded to be approachable for all who came for hisdarshan.[64]
Objects being touched or used by him were highly valued by his devotees, "as they considered it to beprasad and that it passed on some of the power and blessing of theGuru to them".[67] People also tried to touch his feet,[68] which is also considereddarshana.[69] When one devotee asked if it would be possible to prostrate before Sri Ramana Maharshi and touch his feet, he replied:
The real feet of Bhagavan exist only in the heart of the devotee. To hold onto these feet incessantly is true happiness. You will be disappointed if you hold onto my physical feet because one day this physical body will disappear. The greatest worship is worshipping the Guru's feet that are within oneself.[70]
In later life, the number of devotees and their devotion grew so large that Ramana Maharshi became restricted in his daily routine.[71] Measures had to be taken to prevent people touching him.[72] Several times Ramana Maharshi tried to escape from the ashram, to return to a life of solitude. Vasudeva reports: "Bhagavan sat on a rock and said with tears in his eyes that he would never again come to the Ashram and would go where he pleased and live in the forests or caves away from all men."[73]
Ramana Maharshi did return to the ashram, but has also reported himself on attempts to leave the ashram:
I tried to be free on a third occasion also. That was after mother's passing away. I did not want to have even an Ashram like Skandashram and the people that were coming there then. But the result has been this Ashram [Ramanashram] and all the crowd here. Thus, all my three attempts failed.[73]
Some of Ramana Maharshi's devotees regarded him to be asDakshinamurti;[74][75] as anavatar ofSkanda, adivine form of Shiva popular in Tamil Nadu; as an incarnation ofJnana Sambandar, one of the sixty-three Nayanars; and as an incarnation ofKumārila Bhaṭṭa, the 8th century Mimamsa-philosopher. According to Krishna Bhikshu, one of his early biographers:
As Kumarila he established the supremacy of the karma marga, as Jnana Sambandar, a poet, he brought bhakti marga close to the people and as Ramana Maharshi he showed that the purpose of life was to abide in the Self and to stay in the sahaja state by the jnana marga.[76]
A number of Ramana Maharshi's Indian devotees (a more extensive list of devotees can be found in V. Ganesan'sRamana Periya Puranam[77]):
Ganapati Muni (1878–1936), Sanskrit scholar and poet, activist for Indian independence,[78] and one of Ramana Maharshi's foremost devotees.[79] Muni devised the name "Ramana Maharshi",[80]
Gudipati Venkatachalam (1894 to 1976), a notedTelugu writer, lived the later part of his life and died near Ramana Maharshi's ashram in Arunachalam.
H. W. L. Poonja, a teacher of self-enquiry, who learned about it when he visited Ramana Maharshi in the 1940s
Swami Ramdas visited Ramana Maharshi while on pilgrimage in 1922, and afterdarshan, spent the next 21 days meditating in solitude in a cave on Arunachala. Thereafter, he attained the direct realisation that "All was Rama, nothing but Rama."[web 10]
Maurice Frydman (a.k.a. Swami Bharatananda), a Polish-Jewish engineer and humanitarian who later translatedNisargadatta Maharaj's workI Am That from Marathi to English, was also deeply influenced by Ramana Maharshi's teachings. Many of the questions published inMaharshi's Gospel (1939) were put by Maurice, and they elicited detailed replies from the Maharshi. Maharshi's Gospel is the only English language text that was personally proofread by Ramana Maharshi – the original manuscript with corrections in Ramana Maharshi's handwriting still exists in the Ashram Archives.[note 11]
Ethel Merston, who wrote about Ramana Maharshi in her memoirs.
Mouni Sadhu (Mieczyslaw Demetriusz Sudowski) (17 August 1897 – 24 December 1971), an Australian author of spiritual, mystical and esoteric subjects.
David Godman, a former librarian at the ashram, who has written about Ramana Maharshi's teaching and the lives of Ramana Maharshi's lesser-known attendants and devotees.
Ramana Maharshi providedupadeśa ("spiritual instruction")[7] by providingdarshan andsitting silently together with devotees and visitors, but also by answering the questions and concerns raised by those who sought him out. Many of these question-and-answer sessions have been transcribed and published by devotees, some of which have been edited by Ramana Maharshi himself. A few texts have been published which were written by Ramana Maharshi himself, or written down on his behalf and edited by him.
Ramana Maharshi also provided an example by his own devotion to Shiva, which has been extensively described by his devotees, such as walks around the holy hill Arunachala, in which devotees participated, and his hymns to Arunachala.
Ramana Maharshi described his 'real I' as a "force" or "current", which descended on him in his death-experience, and continued throughout his life:
... a force or current, a centre of energy playing on the body, continuing regardless of the rigidity or activity of the body, though existing in connection with it. It was that current, force or centre that constituted my Self, that kept me acting and moving, but this was the first time I came to know it [...] I had no idea at that time of the identity of that current with the personal God, orIswara as I used to call him [...] I was only feeling that everything was being done by the current and not by me [...] This current, or avesam, now felt as if it was my Self, not a superimposition [...] That avesam continues right up to now.[web 1]
Ramana Maharshi used various terms to denote this 'real I'.[note 12] The most frequently used terms weresat-chit-ananda, which translates into English as "truth-consciousness-bliss";[83]God,Brahman andSiva,[note 13] andthe Heart, which is not to be confused with the physical heart, or a particular point in space, but was rather to indicate that "the Self was the source from which all appearances manifested".[82]
According to David Godman, the essence of Ramana Maharshi's teachings is that the "Self" or real "I" is a "non-personal, all-inclusive awareness":[84]
The realSelf or real 'I' is, contrary to perceptible experience, not an experience of individuality but a non-personal, all-inclusive awareness. It is not to be confused with the individual self which (Ramana Maharshi) said was essentially non-existent, being a fabrication of the mind, which obscures the true experience of the realSelf. He maintained that the realSelf is always present and always experienced but he emphasized that one is only consciously aware of it as it really is when the self-limiting tendencies of the mind have ceased. Permanent and continuous Self-awareness is known as Self-realization.[84]
Ramana Maharshi considered the 'real I' to be permanent and enduring,[85] surviving physical death.[86] "The sleep, dream and waking states are mere phenomena appearing on the Self,"[87] as is the "I"-thought.[85] Our "true nature" is "simple Being, free from thoughts".[88]
Ramana Maharshi would field many questions aboutjnanis ("liberated beings") from devotees, but even the termsjnani andajnani (non-liberated being) are incorrect, since it leads one to the idea of there being a knower and a known, a subject and an object. The truth of it according to Ramana Maharshi is that there are neitherjnanis norajnanis, there is simplyjnana, which is Self:[89]
The jnani sees no one as an ajnani. All are only jnanis in his sight. In the ignorant state one superimposes one's ignorance on a jnani and mistakes him for a doer. In the state ofjnana, the jnani sees nothing separate from theSelf. TheSelf is all shining and only purejnana.[90]
Ramana Maharshi's main means of instruction to his devotees, in order to remove ignorance and abide in Self-awareness, was throughsilentlysitting together with his visitors,[web 12][91] using words only sparingly.[92] His method of instruction has been compared toDakshinamurti –Shiva in the ascetic appearance of theGuru, who teaches through silence:
One evening, devotees asked Sri Ramana Maharshi to explain the meaning of Shankara'shymn in praise of Dakshinamurti. They waited for his answer, but in vain. The Maharishi sat motionless on his seat, in total silence.[93]
Commenting upon this silence, Ramana Maharshi said:
Silence is the trueupadesa. It is the perfectupadesa. It is suited only for the most advanced seeker. The others are unable to draw full inspiration from it. Therefore, they require words to explain the truth. But truth is beyond words; it does not warrant explanation. All that is possible is to indicate It. How is that to be done?[94]
Ankur Barua argues that Ramana Maharshi's method of teaching resembled Socratic questioning, guiding seekers to reflect on the source of their own inquiries, which was often aided by silence. In his dialogues with devotees, Ramana emphasised the importance of exploring the nature of the questioner, and not the question. In such moments, the devotee is left in silence.[95]
Vichara, "Self-enquiry", also calledātma-vichār orjnana-vichara[96] is the constant attention to the inner awareness of "I" or "I am". Ramana Maharshi frequently recommended it as the most efficient and direct way of realising Self-awareness, in response to questions on self-liberation and the classic texts on Yoga and Vedanta.[web 13][97][note 14] He instructed his disciples to practice self-inquiry "to access the ultimate source of the limited ego," and to experience "the divine Self" through direct experience, rather than through a mere intellectual process.[100] Ramana Maharshi emphasised that without self-enquiry, other methods may temporarily calm the mind but are ineffective in dissolving the ego.[101]
According to Ramana Maharshi, theI-thought[note 15] is the sense of individuality: "(Aham, aham) 'I-I' is the Self; (Aham idam) "I am this" or "I am that" is the ego."[102] By paying attention to the 'I'-thought, inquiring where it comes from,[web 15][note 16] the 'I'-thought will disappear and the "shining forth" (sphurana)[web 3] of "I-I"[web 17][note 17] or Self-awareness will appear.[note 18] This results in an "effortless awareness of being",[web 15] and by staying with it[web 3][note 19] this "I-I" gradually destroys thevasanas "which cause the 'I'-thought to rise".[web 15] When thevasanas disappear, the mind,vritti[note 20] also comes to rest, since it centers around the 'I'-thought,[103] and finally the 'I'-thought never rises again, which isSelf-realisation orliberation:[104][web 15]
If one remains still without leaving it, even the sphurana – having completely annihilated the sense of the individuality, the form of the ego, 'I am the body' – will itself in the end subside, just like the flame that catches the camphor. This alone is said to be liberation by great ones and scriptures. (The Mountain Path, 1982, p. 98).[web 3][note 21]
Robert Forman notes that Ramana Maharshi made a distinction betweensamadhi andsahaja samadhi.Samadhi is a contemplative state, which is temporary, while insahaja samadhi a "silent state" is maintained while engaged in daily activities.[105] Ramana Maharshi himself stated repeatedly thatsamadhi only suppresses thevāsanās, the karmic impressions, but does not destroy them. Only by abiding in Self-awareness will thevāsanās, which create the sense of a separate self, be destroyed, andsahaja samadhi be attained.[note 22]
Although Ramana Maharshi advocated self-enquiry as the fastest means to realisation, he also recommended the path ofbhakti and self-surrender (to one's deity or guru) either concurrently or as an adequate alternative, which would ultimately converge with the path of self-enquiry.[107] According to Ramana Maharshi, Jnana and Bhakti are not different paths, but both lead to the same goal: the realisation of the Self. He taught that true Bhakti is love for the Self, and since the Self is God, love for the Self is also love for God.[108]
Surrender has to be complete and desireless, without any expectations of solutions or rewards, or even liberation. It is a willingness to accept whatever happens.[web 2] Surrender is not the willful act of an individual self, but the growing awareness that there is no individual self to surrender. Practice is aimed at the removal of ignorance, not at the attainment of realisation.[web 2]
Bhagavan: There are only two ways to conquer destiny or to be independent of it. One is to inquire whose this destiny is and discover that only the ego is bound by it and not the Self and that the ego is non-existent. The other way is to kill the ego by completely surrendering to the Lord, realizing one's helplessness and saying all the time: "Not I, but Thou, oh Lord," giving up all sense of "I" and "mine" and leaving it to the Lord to do what He likes with you. Surrender can never be regarded as complete so long as the devotee wants this or that from the Lord. True surrender is the love of God for the sake of love and nothing else, not even for the sake of salvation. In other words, complete effacement of the ego is necessary to conquer destiny, whether you achieve this effacement through Self-inquiry or through bhakti-marga.[109]
According to David Godman, Ramana Maharshi taught that the idea of reincarnation is based on wrong ideas about the individual self as being real. Ramana Maharshi would sometimes say that rebirth does exist, to step forward to those who were not able to fully grasp the non-reality of the individual self. But when this illusoriness is realised, there is no room any more for ideas about reincarnation. When the identification with the body stops, any notions about death and rebirth become inapplicable, since there is no birth or death within Self, a teaching known asAjativada.[3] Ramana Maharshi:
Reincarnation exists only so long as there is ignorance. There is really no reincarnation at all, either now or before. Nor will there be any hereafter. This is the truth.[3]
Ramana Maharshi viewed yoga as a means to steady the mind and support self-enquiry. He suggested practices like devotion, breath control, and meditation (dhyana) to calm the restless mind and focus it on the self.[95]
According to Wehr,C. G. Jung noted that Ramana Maharshi is not to be regarded as an "isolated phenomenon",[110] but as a token of Indian spirituality, "manifest in many forms in everyday Indian life".[110][note 23] According to Zimmer and Jung, Ramana Maharshi's appearance as amauni, a silent saint absorbed insamadhi, fitted into pre-existing Indian notions of holiness.[111][112] They placed the Indian devotion toward Ramana Maharshi in this Indian context.[112][110][note 24]
According to Alan Edwards, the popular image of Ramana Maharshi as a timeless saint also served the construction of an Indian identity as inner-oriented and spiritual, in opposition to the oppressive, outer-oriented, materialistic culture of the British colonial rulers:[114]
Hindus from all over India could look to the purely spiritual Maharshi as a symbol that inspired them to preserve their distinctive national culture and identity, which of course entailed forcing the British to quit India.[115][note 25]
Though Ramana Maharshi's answers explain and incorporate elements from Advaita Vedanta, his spiritual life is strongly associated withShaivism. The Tamil compendium of devotional songs known asTirumurai, along with theVedas, the ShaivaAgamas and"Meykanda" or"Siddhanta"Shastras, form the scriptural canon of Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta.[116] As a youth, prior to his awakening, Ramana Maharshi read thePeriya Puranam, the stories of the63 Tamil saints.[117] In later life, he told those stories to his devotees:
When telling these stories, he used to dramatize the characters of the main figures in voice and gesture and seemed to identify himself fully with them.[118]
Ramana Maharshi himself considered God, Guru and Self to be the manifestations of the same reality.[web 22] Ramana Maharshi considered the Self to be his guru, in the form of the sacred mountainArunachala,[119][120] which is considered to be the manifestation ofShiva.[121][119] Arunachala is one of the five main shaivite holy places in South India,[122] which can be worshipped through the mantra "Om arunachala shivaya namah!"[123] and byPradakshina, walking around the mountain, a practice which was often performed by Ramana Maharshi.[119] Asked about the special sanctity of Arunachala, Ramana Maharshi said that Arunachala is Shiva himself.[124][note 26] In his later years, Ramana Maharshi said it was the spiritual power of Arunachala which had brought about his Self-realisation.[121] He composed theFive Hymns to Arunachala as devotional song.[119] On the three occasions Venkataraman (Ramana) referred to himself he used the nameArunachala Ramana.[125] Ramana Maharshi also used to smear his forehead with holy ash, as a token of veneration.
In later life, Ramana Maharshi himself came to be regarded asDakshinamurthy,[74][75] an aspect of Shiva as aguru of all types of knowledge, and bestower ofjnana. This aspect ofShiva is his personification as the supreme or the ultimate awareness, understanding and knowledge.[126] This form represents Shiva in his aspect as a teacher ofyoga, music, and wisdom, and giving exposition on the shastras.
During his lifetime, through contact with educated devotees like Ganapata Muni,[118] Ramana Maharshi became acquainted with works on Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta, and used them to explain his insights:[127]
People wonder how I speak ofBhagavad Gita, etc. It is due to hearsay. I have not read theGita nor waded through commentaries for its meaning. When I hear asloka (verse), I think its meaning is clear and I say it. That is all and nothing more.[128]
Already in 1896, a few months after his arrival at Arunachala, Ramana Maharshi attracted his first disciple, Uddandi Nayinar,[129] who recognised in him "the living embodiment of the Holy Scriptures".[130] Uddandi was well-versed in classic texts on Yoga and Vedanta, and recited texts as theYoga Vasistha andKaivalya Navaneeta in Ramana Maharshi's presence.[130]
In 1897 Ramana Maharshi was joined by Palaniswami, who became his attendant.[131] Palaniswami studied books in Tamil on Vedanta, such asKaivalya Navaneeta, Shankara'sVivekachudamani, andYoga Vasistha. He had difficulties understanding Tamil. Ramana Maharshi read the books too, and explained them to Palaniswami.[132]
As early as 1900, when Ramana Maharshi was 20 years old, he became acquainted with the teachings of the Hindu monk andNeo-Vedanta[133][134] teacherSwami Vivekananda through Gambhiram Seshayya. Seshayya was interested in yoga techniques, and "used to bring his books and explain his difficulties".[135] Ramana Maharshi answered on small scraps of paper, which were collected after his death in the late 1920s in a booklet calledVichara Sangraham, "Self-enquiry".[135]
One of the works that Ramana Maharshi used to explain his insights was theRibhu Gita, a song at the heart of theShivarahasya Purana, one of the 'ShaivaUpapuranas' or ancillaryPurana regardingShiva andShaivite worship. Another work used by him was theDakshinamurti Stotram, a text by Shankara.[118] It is a hymn to Shiva, explaining Advaita Vedanta.
Ramana Maharshi gave his approval to a variety of paths and practices from various religions,[3] with his own upadesa (instruction or guidance given to a disciple by his Guru)[web 24] always pointing to the trueSelf of the devotees.[136]
In contrast to classical Advaita Vedanta, Ramana Maharshi emphasised the personal experience of self-realisation, instead of philosophical argumentation and the study of scripture.[137] Ramana Maharshi's authority was based on his personal experience,[137] from which he explained classic texts on Yoga and Vedanta,[127][128] which he became acquainted with via his devotees.[68][10] Arvind Sharma qualifies Ramana Maharshi as the chief exponent ofexperiential Advaita, to distinguish his approach from Shankara's classicaldoctrinal Advaita.[138] Fort classifies him as aneo-Vedantin, because of the focus on self-inquiry instead of philosophical speculation.[137] Ramana Maharshi himself did not call his insights advaita, but said thatdvaita andadvaita are relative terms, based on a sense of duality, while the Self or Being is all there is.[139]
Although Ramana Maharshi's teaching is consistent with and generally associated withHinduism, theUpanishads andAdvaita Vedanta, there are differences with the traditional Advaitic school. Advaita recommends a negationistneti, neti (Sanskrit, "not this", "not this") path, or mental affirmations that the Self is the only reality, such as "I am Brahman" or "I am He", while Ramana Maharshi advocated Self-enquiryNan Yar. In contrast with traditional Advaita Vedanta, Ramana Maharshi strongly discouraged devotees from adopting a renunciate lifestyle and renouncing their responsibilities. To one devotee who felt he should abandon his family, whom he described as "samsara" ("illusion"), to intensify his spiritual practice, Sri Ramana Maharshi replied:
Oh! Is that so? What really is meant by samsara? Is it within or without? Wife, children and others. Is that all the samsara? What have they done? Please find out first what really is meant by samsara. Afterwards we shall consider the question of abandoning them.[140]
Although many claim to be influenced by him,[web 25] Ramana Maharshi did not publicise himself as a guru,[142] never claimed to have disciples, and never appointed any successors.[web 26][web 27] While a few who came to see him are said to have become enlightened through association,[note 27] he did not publicly acknowledge any living person as liberated other than his mother at death.[143] Ramana Maharshi never promoted any lineage.[144]
With regard to theSri Ramana Ashram, in 1938 Maharshi made a legal will bequeathing all the Ramanashram properties to his younger brother Niranjanananda and his descendants. In 2013, Ramanashram is run by Sri Niranjananda's grandson Sri V.S. Raman. Ramanashram is legally recognised as a public religious trust whose aim is to maintain it in a way that is consistent with Sri Ramana Maharshi's declared wishes. The ashram should remain open as a spiritual institution so that anyone who wishes to can avail themselves of its facilities.[145][web 29]
In the 1930s, Maharshi's teachings were brought to the west byPaul Brunton in hisA Search in Secret India.[146][note 28] Stimulated byArthur Osborne, in the 1960s Bhagawat Singh actively started to spread Ramana Maharshi's teachings in the US.[146] Ramana Maharshi has been further popularised in the west by theneo-Advaita movement,[155] via the students ofH. W. L. Poonja;[155] this movement gives a western re-interpretation of his teachings by placing sole emphasis on insight alone. It has been criticised for this emphasis, omitting the preparatory practices.[156][note 29] Nevertheless, Neo-Advaita has become an important constituent of popular westernspirituality.[157]
According to Ebert, Ramana Maharshi "never felt moved to formulate his teaching of his own accord, either verbally or in writing". The few writings he is credited with "came into being as answers to questions asked by his disciples or through their urging". Only a few hymns were written on his own initiative.[158] Writings by Ramana Maharshi are:
Gambhiram Sheshayya,Vichāra Sangraham, "Self-Enquiry". Answers to questions, compiled in 1901, published in dialogue-form, republished as essay in 1939 asA Catechism of Enquiry. Also published in 1944 in Heinrich Zimmer'sDer Weg zum Selbst.[159]
Sivaprakasam Pillai,Nān Yār?, "Who am I?". Answers to questions, compiled in 1902, first published in 1923.[159][web 30]
Five Hymns to Arunachala:
Akshara Mana Malai, "The Marital Garland of Letters". In 1914, at the request of a devotee, Ramana Maharshi wroteAkshara Mana Malai for his devotees to sing while on their rounds for alms. It's a hymn in praise of Shiva, manifest as the mountain Arunachala. The hymn consists of 108 stanzas composed in poetic Tamil.
Navamani Mālai, "The Necklet of Nine Gems".
Arunāchala Patikam, "Eleven Verses to Sri Arunachala".
Arunāchala Ashtakam, "Eight Stanzas to Sri Arunachala".
Arunāchala Pañcharatna, "Five Stanzas to Sri Arunachala".
Sri Muruganar and Sri Ramana Maharshi,Upadesha Sāra (Upadesha Undiyar), "The Essence of Instruction". In 1927 Muruganar started a poem on the Gods, but asked Ramana Maharshi to write thirty verses onupadesha, "teaching" or "instruction".[160]
Ramana Maharshi,Ulladu narpadu, "Forty Verses on Reality". Written in 1928.[161] First English translation and commentary by S.S. Cohen in 1931.
Ullada Nārpadu Anubandham, "Reality in Forty Verses: Supplement". Forty stanzas, fifteen of which are being written by Ramana Maharshi. The other twenty-five are translations of various Sanskrit-texts.[162]
Sri Muruganar and Sri Ramana Maharshi (1930s),Ramana Puranam.[web 31]
Ekātma Pañchakam, "Five Verses on the Self". Written in 1947, at the request of a female devotee.[163]
All these texts are collected in theCollected Works.In addition to original works, Ramana Maharshi has also translated some scriptures for the benefit of devotees. He selected, rearranged and translated 42 verses from theBhagavad Gita into Tamil and Malayalam. He has also translated few works such asDakshinamurti Stotra,Vivekachudamani andDṛg-Dṛśya-Viveka attributed toShankarachaya.
Several collections of recorded talks, in which Sri Ramana Maharshi used Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam,[3] have been published. Those are based on written transcripts, which were "hurriedly written down in English by his official interpreters".[3][note 30]
Sri Natanananda,Upadesa Manjari, "Origin of Spiritual Instruction". Recordings of dialogues between Sri Ramana Maharshi and devotees. First published in English in 1939 asA Catechism of Instruction.[web 32]
Munagala Venkataramaiah,Talks with Sri Ramana. Talks recorded between 1935 and 1939. Various editions:
Print:Venkataramaiah, Munagala (2000),Talks With Sri Ramana Maharshi: On Realizing Abiding Peace and Happiness, Inner Directions,ISBN1-878019-00-7
Natarajan, A. R. (1992),A Practical Guide to Know Yourself: Conversations with Sri Ramana Maharshi, Ramana Maharshi Centre for Learning,ISBN81-85378-09-6
Aiyyer Gajapathi (2004),Aham Sphurana: Scintillations of Jnana from Sri Ramana Maharshi: A Journal Containing Previously Unpublished Conversations with the Master. Complete edition containing dialogues from 1936.ISBN979-8464538719
Aiyyer, Gajapathi (2022)Aham Sphurana: A Glimpse of Self Realization. Selections from the original 1936 journal of Gajapathi Aiyyer. Open Sky PressISBN979-8865220305
Frank Humphreys, a British policeman stationed in India, visited Ramana Maharshi in 1911 and wrote articles about him which were first published inThe International Psychic Gazette in 1913.[46][note 31]
Paul Brunton (1935),A Search in Secret India. This book introduced Ramana Maharshi to a western audience.[53]
Cohen, S.S. (2003).Guru Ramana. Sri Ramanashram. First published 1956.
^Bhagavan means God,Sri is an honorific title,Ramana is a short form of Venkataraman, andMaharshi means 'great seer' in Sanskrit. The name was given to him in 1907 by one of his first devotees,Ganapati Muni.
^abAccording to G.K. Pillai, this death-experience was an epileptic seizure, which may have been self-induced by holding the breath.[25]
Sudden fear, sensations of heat, the awareness of a presence, and body rigidity, are all symptoms that may manifest either prior or during a seizure: * "A sudden sense of unprovoked fear"[web 4] * "A rising sensation in the abdomen"[web 4] * "Some patients have troubles finding appropriate words, or give very simplified descriptions (e.g. feeling of warmth rising in the body, "rising in the head, like bubbles in the head""[26] * "Patients in the HYG more often reported actual experiences of some external being and an awareness of that being. This was described as either an evil or a great spiritual presence, and was associated with feelings of death and dying and an overwhelming feeling of fear. Such phenomenology is akin to the verbal reports from many patients with postictal psychoses. There is not just an awareness of the presence, but also an identification of this other essence. There is also the contrast between, on one hand, almost ecstasy (a miraculous event) and the experience of the presence of a great figure and, on the other hand, the more ominous feelings of fear, death, and punishment."[27] * "In a tonic seizure, the body, arms, or legs may be suddenly stiff or tense."[28]
His experience, and the subsequent sudden and dramatic interest fits in with theGeschwind syndrome, a "transformation of the personality brought about by TLE, in that for some it seemed to magnify or give rise to a preoccupation with religious or philosophical matters."[29]
^Heinrich Zimmer uses the term "the intuition of the enlightened". Ramana Maharshi, as cited by Zimmer: "When I later in Tiruvannamalai listened, how theRibhu Gita and such sacred texts were read, I caught these things and discovered that these books named and analysed, what I before involuntarily felt, without being able to appoint or analyse. In the language of these books I could denote the state in which I found myself after my awakening as 'cleaned understanding' (shuddhammanas) or "Insight" (Vijñāna): as 'the intuition of the Enlightened'".[6]
^The phrase "incomplete practice from a past birth clinging to me" includes the Tamil termvittakurai which the Tamil Lexicon defines as "Karma resulting from acts performed in a previous birth, and which are considered to be the cause of progress in the current birth". The implication is that some spiritual practice performed in a previous life carried forward and drew the young Venkararaman into states of absorption in which he was unaware of either his body or his surroundings.
^According to David Godman, the date 17 July 1896 is based on astrology. Whether Venkataraman's awakening truly occurred on 17 July 1896, or a date close to the 17th is unknown. However, it is known that Venkataraman's awakening did take place at some point in the middle of July 1896.
^In an interview with Narasimha, Ramana Maharshi stated: "Once I reached that conclusion (as I said, on the first day of the six weeks, the day of my awakening into my new life) the fear of death dropped off. It had no place in my thoughts. 'I', being a subtle current, it had no death to fear. So, further development or activity was issuing from the new life and not from any fear. I had no idea at that time of the identity of that current with the personal God, or Iswara as I used to call him. As for Brahman, the impersonal absolute, I had no idea then. I had not even heard the name then. I had not read the Bhagavad Gita or any other religious works except the Periyapuranam and in Bible class the four Gospels and the Psalms from the Bible. I had seen a copy of Vivekananda's Chicago lecture, but I had not read it. I could not even pronounce his name correctly. I pronounced it 'Vyvekananda', giving the 'i' the 'y' sound. I had no notions of religious philosophy except the current notions of God, that He is an infinitely powerful person, present everywhere, though worshipped in special places in the images representing Him. This I knew in addition to a few other similar ideas which I picked up from the Bible and the Periyapuranam. Later, when I was in the Arunachala Temple, I learned of the identity of myself with Brahman, which I had heard in theRibhu Gita as underlying all. I was only feeling that everything was being done by the current and not by me, a feeling I had had ever since I wrote my parting note and left home. I had ceased to regard the current as my narrow 'I'. This current, or avesam, now felt as if it was my Self, not a superimposition.
While, on the one hand, the awakening gave me a continuous idea or feeling that my Self was a current or force in which I was perpetually absorbed whatever I did, on the other hand the possession led me frequently to the Meenakshi Sundaresa Temple [in Madurai]. Formerly I would visit it occasionally with friends, but at that time [it] produced no noticeable emotional effect, much less a change in my habits. But after the awakening I would go there almost every evening, and in that obsession I would go and stand there for a long time alone before Siva, Nataraja, Meenakshi and the sixty-three saints. I would sob and shed tears, and would tremble with emotion. I would not generally pray for anything in particular, although I often wished and prayed that…"[24]
^Rama P. Coomaraswamy: "[Krama-mukti is] to be distinguished from jîvan-mukti, the state of total and immediate liberation attained during this lifetime, and videha-mukti, the state of total liberation attained at the moment of death."[30] See[web 6] for more info on "gradual liberation".
^Sudden conversion, following after epipletic seizures, is also described in theGeschwind syndrome: "... the transformation of the personality brought about by TLE, in that for some it seemed to magnify or give rise to a preoccupation with religious or philosophical matters".[32]
^About Frydman, Sri Ramana Maharshi had remarked "He belongs only here (to India). Somehow he was born abroad, but has come again here."[web 11]
^According to David Godman, each term signifies a different aspect of "the same indivisible reality".[82]
^According to David Godman, Ramana Maharshi would use these terms not to refer to a personal God, but to the "formless being which sustains the universe".[82]
^According to Krishna Bhikshu, an early biographer of Ramana Maharshi, "[a] new path for attaining moksha was indicated here. Nobody else had discovered this path earlier".[44] According to David Frawley,atma-vichara is the most important practice in theAdvaita Vedanta tradition, predating its popularisation by Ramana Maharshi.[web 14] It is part of the eighth limb ofPatanjali's Yoga Sutras, which describes the various stages of samadhi. Meditation on "I-am-ness" is a subtle object of meditation insavikalpa samadhi.[98] It is also described in theYoga Vasistha, a syncretic work which may date from the 6th or 7th century CE, and shows influences fromYoga,Samkhya,Saiva Siddhanta andMahayana Buddhism, especiallyYogacara.[99] The practice is also well-known from Chinese Chán Buddhism, especially fromDahui Zonggao'sHua Tou practice.
^According to Ramana Maharshi, one realises that it rises in thehṛdayam (heart). "Hṛdayam" consists of two syllables 'hṛt' and 'ayam' which signify "I am the Heart".[web 16] The use of the word "hṛdayam" is not unique to Ramana Maharshi. A famous Buddhist use is thePrajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya Sutra, theHeart Sutra
^"Nan-nan," literally "I-I", also translated as "I am, I am", "being-consciousness",[web 18] and "I am I".[web 19] According to David Godman, the "I-I" is an intermediary realisation between the "I" (ego) and the Self. "[T]he verses on 'I-I' that Bhagavan wrote are open to two interpretations. They can be taken either to mean that the 'I-I' is experienced as a consequence of realisation or as a precursor to it. My own view, and I would stress that it is only a personal opinion, is that the evidence points to it being a precursor only.[web 20]
^Ramana Maharshi: "(Aham, aham) 'I-I' is the Self; (Aham idam) "I am this" or "I am that" is the ego. Shining is there always. The ego is transitory; When the 'I' is kept up as 'I' alone it is the Self; when it flies at a tangent and says "this" it is the ego."[102] David Godman: "the expression 'nan-nan' ('I-I' in Tamil) would generally be taken to mean 'I am I' by a Tamilian. This interpretation would make 'I-I' an emphatic statement of Self-awareness akin to the biblical 'I am that I am' which Bhagavan occasionally said summarised the whole of Vedanta. Bhagavan himself has said that he used the term 'I-I' to denote the import of the word 'I'."[web 13]
^According to Sadu Om, self-enquiry can also be seen as 'Self-attention' or 'Self-abiding'.[39]
^Conceptual thinking, memory, the creation of "things" in the mind
^Ramana Maharshi: "Liberation (mukti) is the total destruction of the I-impetusaham-kara, of the "me"- and "my"-impetus (mama-kara)".[104]
^The distinction, made byWalter Terence Stace, between "introvertive mysticism" and "extrovertive mysticism", is at the heart of the contemporary debates onmysticism andmystical experience. Whereas Stace regarded these two forms as different forms of mysticism, Forman sees them as developmental stages. Forman also notes that "the first experience ofsamadhi [by Ramana Maharshi] precededsahaja samadhi by several years".[106] See alsoTraining after kenshō.
^Jung wrote the foreword toHeinrich Zimmer'sDer Weg zum Selbst, "The Path to the Self" (1944),[110] an early collection of translations of Ramana Maharshi's teachings in a western language.
^Michaels usesBourdieu's notion ofhabitus to point to the power of "culturally acquired lifestyles and attitudes, habits and predispositions, as well as conscious, deliberate acts or mythological, theological, or philosophical artifacts and mental productions"[113] in his understanding of Hinduism.
^Edwards notes the pervading influence of westernOrientalism on the perception of Ramana Maharshi, even in western scholarship, which tends to favour this picture of the timeless guru: "...scholarship can misinterpret and misrepresent religious figures because of the failure to recognise the presence of [Orientalist stereotypes] and assumptions, and also because of the failure to maintain critical distance when dealing with the rhetoric of devotional literature".[web 21] See alsoKing, Richard (2002),Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic East", Routledge, andZen Narratives for a similar romantisation of Zen and its archetypalRōshi.
^Shankara saw Arunchala asMount Meru, which is in Indian mythology the axis of the world, and the abode ofBrahman and the gods.[web 23]
^David Godman: "Because some of the interpreters were not completely fluent in English some of the transcriptions were either ungrammatical or written in a kind of stilted English which occasionally makes Sri Ramana Maharshi sound like a pompous Victorian."[3]
^"Michael Trimble, Anthony Freeman (2006),An investigation of religiosity and the Gastaut–Geschwind syndrome in patients with temporal lobe epilepsy, Epilepsy & Behavior 9 (2006) 407–414
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