As of November 2025, theArakan Army which is the armed wing of the ethnicRakhine, maintains de facto control over approximately 90 percent of the state, including 14 of its 17 townships.[6]
The region is named after theRakhine people, who form the majority of its population. The state was historically known asArakan in English until the Burmese government adopted the English nameRakhine in 1989.[7]
The province was officially designated as a state under Myanmar’s administrative system during the 1974 Constitution referendum. Rakhine State Day is celebrated every year on December 15.[8][9]
Silver coin of kingNitichandra, Arakan.Brahmi legend "NITI" in front,Shrivatasa symbol on the reverse. 8th century CE.
The history of the region ofArakan (now renamed Rakhine State) can be roughly divided into seven parts. The first four divisions and the periods are based on the location of the centre of power of the main polities in the northern Rakhine region, especially along the Kaladan River. Thus, the history is divided into theDhanyawadi,Waithali,Laymro andMrauk U. Mrauk U was conquered by theKonbaung dynasty of Burma in 1784–85, after which Rakhine became part of the Konbaung kingdom of Burma. In 1824, the firstAnglo-Burmese war erupted and in 1826, Rakhine (alongsideTanintharyi) was ceded to theBritish East India Company aswar reparations by the Burmese. Rakhine thus became part of theprovince of Burma inBritish India. In 1948, Burma was given independence and Rakhine became part of the newly independent state.
Beginning in the 400s, thePyus and Kanyans of Tibeto-Burman people began migrating westward, crossing theArakan Mountains and settling in what is now Rakhine State.[10][11] By the 1100s, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of thePagan Empire until the 13th century.[12][11] Over time, these Tibeto-Burmans mixed withIndo-Aryans and formed a distinct cultural identity, eventually becoming theRakhine people (also known as the Arakanese).[11][12]
According to Arakanese legend, the first recorded kingdom was founded by theSakya clan of Buddha who are ancient Hindus Indo-aryans, centred around the northern town ofDhanyawadi, arose in the 34th century BCE and lasted until 327 CE. Rakhine documents and inscriptions state that the famedMahamuni Buddha image was cast in Dhanyawady in around 554 BCE when the Buddha visited the kingdom. After the fall of Dhanyawadi in the 4th century CE, the centre of power shifted to a new dynasty based in the town ofWaithali. TheWaithali kingdom ruled the regions of Arakan from the middle of the 4th century to 818 CE. The period is seen as the classical period of Arakan culture, architecture and Buddhism, as the Waithali period left behind more archaeological remains than its predecessor. A new dynasty emerged in four towns along theLemyo River as Waithali waned in influence, and ushered in the Lemro period, where four principal towns served as successive capitals.[citation needed]
World Map during 1555 CE, Rakhine (Arakan) is seen neighbouring the Toungoo Empire and Bengal
TheKingdom of Mrauk U which was founded in 1429 byMin Saw Mon was the final independent Arakanese kingdom. It is seen by the Rakhine people as the golden age of their history, as Mrauk U served as a commercially important port and base of power in the Bay of Bengal region and involved in extensive maritime trade. The Kingdom of Mrauk-U went on to conquerChittagong with the help of the Portuguese. The country steadily declined from the 18th century onwards after its loss of Chittagong to theMughal Empire. Internal instability, rebellion and dethroning of kings were very common. The Portuguese, during the era of their greatness in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan.[13][14][15][16]
In 1784, a group of Rakhine representatives sought assistance fromBodawpaya, king of theKonbaung dynasty, to mediate internal disputes within theRakhine royal court. Responding to their request—and motivated by expansionist ambitions—Bodawpaya dispatched his son,Thado Minsaw, thePrince of the Front Palace, to lead a full-scale military expedition intoArakan. The invasion force was divided into three land columns and a naval flotilla.
The campaign began on 2 December 1784, and on 2 January 1785, theKingdom of Mrauk U—weakened by internal strife—fell to the invading forces of theKonbaung dynasty.Maha Thammada Raza, the last king of Mrauk U, was captured along with his queen, royal family members, ministers, monks, and artisans, and deported toAmarapura.
One of the most significant war trophies was the sacredMahamuni Buddha Image, which was dismantled and transported to Amarapura, and later enshrined inMandalay. The Burmese also seized numerous cultural and religious artifacts, includinggold andsilver regalia,bronze statues (some originally taken from theAyutthaya), weapons, and sacred manuscripts.
Although the Rakhine people initially believed the Burmese would restore peace, they soon recognized the move as an annexation. Uprisings ensued, and many rebels fled toBritish-controlled Bengal. When Burmese forces crossed the border in pursuit, tensions escalated between Burma and theBritish East India Company, setting the stage for future conflict.
With the annexation of Arakan,Burma came into direct territorial contact withBritish India. These tensions eventually culminated in theFirst Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). During the conflict, British forces captured Arakan and occupied parts of Lower Burma.
In a symbolic reversal of earlier events, thePresidency armies took the great bell from the Mahamuni shrine as war loot. It was awarded to Bhim Singh, a Risaldar in the 2nd Battalion of theBengal Army, for his bravery. The bell is still housed in a temple inNadrai, nearKasganj, in present-dayKasganj district ofUttar Pradesh,India.
The war concluded with the signing of theTreaty of Yandabo in 1826, under which Burma cededArakan andTenasserim to the British.Akyab (nowSittwe) became the administrative capital of Arakan. Later, Arakan was integrated into the province ofBurma under theBritish Raj, and then intoBritish Burma after it became a separateCrown colony. Administratively, Arakan was divided into three districts, following the traditional divisions of theMrauk U period.
Rakhine was the centre of multiple insurgencies which fought against British rule, notably led by the monksU Ottama andU Seinda.[citation needed] During the Second World War, Rakhine was given autonomy under theJapanese occupation of Burma and was even granted its own army known as the Arakan Defense Force. The Arakan Defense Force went over to the allies and turned against the Japanese in early 1945.[17] Rakhine (Arakan) was the site of many battles during the Second World War, most notably theArakan Campaign 1942–43 and theBattle of Ramree Island.
In 1948, Rakhine became a division within theUnion of Burma, and the three districts became Arakan Division. From the 1950s, there was a growing movement forsecession and restoration of Arakan independence.
Since 2010, Rakhine state has had two chief ministers: Hla Maung Tin and Major General Maung Maung Ohn. Hla Maung Tin (January 2011 – 20 June 2014) was an elected RakhineState Hluttaw member representing USDP fromAnn Township in 2010 general election. He resigned from the post after recurrent intense inter-communal conflicts between Muslims and Rakhine ethnic groups in 2012–14.[18] In 2014, he was replaced by Major General Maung Maung Ohn (30 June 2014 – present). Ohn was Deputy Minister for Border Affairs and head of the Rakhine State's Emergency Coordination Center before he was named to become a military-appointed Rakhine State Hluttaw member by Election Commission on 21 June 2014. His appointment as Chief Minister was formalized on 30 June 2014 although Arakan National Party opposed it.[19]
In June 2012, Rakhine State in Myanmar experiencedsevere communal violence between ethnic Rakhine Buddhists andRohingya Muslims, resulting in at least 88 fatalities, 4,600 homes being burnt and displacement of approximately 100,000 people.[20]
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Rohingya refugees entering Bangladesh after being driven out of Rakhine State, 2017
The NLD government refused to share executive power at the state level after theArakan National Party (ANP) won a majority of votes in Rakhine State during the2015 general election. Arakanese lawmakers frequently complained that their proposals in the state parliament were rejected or ignored.[22][23]
In 2017, State CounsellorAung San Suu Kyi and theTatmadaw reportedly rejected national-level political dialogue in Rakhine State, a mandatory step under theNationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA). This dialogue would have allowed regional stakeholders to present proposals at large-scale public consultations, with the outcomes discussed at the Union Peace Conference, also known as the 21st Century Panglong. In February 2017, theArakan Liberation Party (ALP)—one of eight NCA signatories—requested to hold ethnic-based national-level political dialogue in Rakhine State. Aung San Suu Kyi declined, stating that the ALP was not yet ready. Despite submitting three formal requests, the government did not respond. At a Joint Implementation Coordination Meeting (JICM), Suu Kyi again denied the request, citing the sensitive situation involving Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State.[24][25]
On 16 January 2018, thousands of residents inMrauk U staged a protest after officials banned a memorial event commemorating the 233rd anniversary of the fall of theMrauk U Kingdom. Local police opened fire on the crowd, killing seven people and injuring 12. Two speakers at the event—Aye Maung, a prominent Rakhine politician, andWai Hun Aung, a Sittwe-based activist—were subsequently charged. Aye Maung was charged under Section 17(1) of the Unlawful Associations Act and Sections 121 and 505 of the Penal Code, relating to high treason and incitement, while Wai Hun Aung was charged with public mischief. Eight Rakhine youths injured in the protest were also detained and charged under Article 6(1) for allegedly damaging government and public property.[26][27]
With the exception of Toungup Township, ethnic Rakhine parties have historically been dominant in these areas. TheRakhine Nationalities Development Party (RNDP) andArakan National Party (ANP) won the majority of seats in these townships during the 2010 and 2015 general elections.[29][30]
In November 2020, the Myanmar military and the Arakan Army (AA) reached an informal ceasefire, leading to a temporary reduction in hostilities in Rakhine State. However, after the military coup in February 2021, clashes resumed in the region.[31]
Following the military coup in February 2021, Rakhine State experienced intensified armed conflicts, particularly between theMyanmar Armed Forces (MAF) and the Arakan Army (AA). By September 2021, the AA and its political wing, theUnited League of Arakan (ULA), had gained control over roughly 75% of Rakhine’s townships.[31]
In early 2024, the battle for the border town ofMaungdaw resulted in heavy fighting, leading to numerous civilian casualties and displacements. Reports indicate that during this period, civilians, including the Rohingya population, were subjected to coordinated killings, large-scale arson attacks, and shelling. Notably, on August 5, 2024, an attack in Maungdaw targeted Rohingya civilians attempting to flee by boat, resulting in numerous deaths.[32]
By February 2025, a CSIS report indicated that the Arakan Army had begun establishing local governments in the Rakhine townships under its control. However, little is known about their governance structure or the inclusion of non-Arakan ethnic groups. It remains unclear whether the AA will halt military operations after securing its claimed territory, as its offensives inPaletwa,Magway, and other areas suggest broader territorial ambitions. The group's stance on Myanmar’s political future is also uncertain, while it previously sought autonomy under the 2008 constitution like theUnited Wa State Army, it may now pursue full statehood or independence.[35]
Rakhine State, like many parts of the country, has a diverse ethnic population. Official Burmese figures state Rakhine State's population as 3,118,963.[36]
TheRakhine make up the majority of the state's population, followed by a considerable population ofRohingya Muslims that is not officially recognized.[37][38] Smaller ethnic minorities like theThet,Kamein,Chin,Mro,Daingnet,Khami,Bengali Hindu andMaramagri inhabit mainly in the hillly regions of the state.
After the 2014Census in Myanmar, the Burmese government indefinitely withheld release of detailed ethnicity data, citing concerns around political and social concerns surrounding the issue of ethnicity in Myanmar.[39] In 2022, researchers published an analysis of theGeneral Administration Department's nationwide 2018-2019 township reports to tabulate the ethnic makeup of Rakhine State.[40][39]
According to theState Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee's 2016 statistics, 12,943 Buddhist monks were registered in Rakhine State, comprising 2.4% of Myanmar's totalSangha membership, which includes both novicesamanera and fully-ordained bhikkhu.[41] The majority of monks belong to theThudhamma Nikaya (88.9%), followed byShwegyin Nikaya (3.9%), with the remainder of monks belonging to other smallmonastic orders.[41] 534thilashin were registered in Rakhine State, comprising 0.9% of Myanmar's total thilashin community.[41]
The Rakhine are traditionallyTheravada Buddhists. As per the 1983 Census, 98.63% of the Rakhine in Rakhine State were Buddhist and another 1.19% were Muslim who are recognized separately asKamein. The Chin were the 3rd largest ethnic group, contributing 4% of the population in the 1983 Census. At that time, out of the 64,404 Chin people in Rakhine, 55.76% were Buddhist and 33.79% were Animist.[42] Muslims constituted more than 80–96% of the population near the border withBangladesh and the coastal areas. As per the 1983 Census, 99.82% of the Rohingya, 99.24% of the "Other foreigners", 89.20% of the "Mixed races", 85.50% of the Indians and 67.51% of the "Pakistanis" in the state were Muslims.[42]
Few roads cross theArakan Mountains from central Burma to Rakhine State. The three highways that do are theAnn toMunbra (Minbya in Burmese pronunciation) road in central Rakhine,[44] theToungup toPamtaung road in south central Rakhine,[44] and theGwa toNgathaingchaung road in far southern Rakhine.[44][45][46] Air travel still is the usual mode of travel fromYangon andMandalay to Sittwe andNgapali, the popular beach resort. Only in 1996 was a highway from Sittwe to the mainland constructed. The state still does not have a rail line (althoughMyanmar Railways has announced a 480-km rail extension to Sittwe from Pathein via Ponnagyun-Kyauttaw-Mrauk U-Minbya-Ann).[47]
With Chinese investment, a deep sea port has been constructed in Kyaukphyu to facilitate the transport of natural gas andcrude oil from the Indian Ocean to China without passing throughStrait of Malacca.[48]
Rakhine is one of the poorest states in Myanmar.[49] Over 69% of the population live in poverty.[50]
Rice is the main crop in the region, occupying around 85% of the total agricultural land.Coconut andnipa palm plantations are also important. Fishing is a major industry, with most of the catch transported toYangon, but some is also exported. Wood products such as timber,bamboo and fuel wood are extracted from the mountains. Small amounts of inferior-gradecrude oil are produced from primitive, shallow, hand-dug wells, but there is yet unexplored potential for petroleum and natural gas production.
Tourism is slowly being developed. The ruins of the ancient royal townMrauk U and the beach resorts ofNgapali are the major attractions for foreign visitors, but facilities are still primitive, and the transportation infrastructure is still rudimentary.
The region suffers from chronic power shortages. In 2009, the electricity consumption of a state of 3 million people was 30MW, or 1.8% of the country's total generation capacity.[51] In December 2009, the military government added three more hydropower plants, Saidin, Thahtay Chaung andLaymromyit, at a cost of over US$800 million. The three plants together can produce 687 megawatts, with surplus electricity distributed to other states and divisions.[51]
Additionally, as of November 2024, reports indicate that over 2 million people in Rakhine State are at risk of famine due to reduced food production and ongoing conflicts. Without urgent action, it is predicted that 95% of the population will regress into survival mode.[52]
Myanmar also acts as abuffer state for China in managing Western and Indian influence inSoutheast Asia. Despite international criticism, it is known that China has maintained close relations with Myanmar's military while also engaging with major ethnic armed organizations (EAOs).[56][57]
Route map of the Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project
Like China, India also maintains flexible diplomacy by engaging with both Myanmar’s military government andEAOs operating near its borders, including the AA.[56]
Bangladesh, which shares a border with Rakhine State, has primarily shown concerns about the Rohingya refugee movements. The country hosts over more than one millionRohingya refugees who fled the state.[57]
Educational opportunities in Myanmar are extremely limited outside the main cities ofYangon andMandalay. The following is a summary of the public school system in the state in academic year 2013–2014.[60]
The general state ofhealth care in Myanmar is poor. The military government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world.[61][62] Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. The entire Rakhine State has fewer hospital beds than theYangon General Hospital. The following is a summary of the public health care system in the state.[63]
^abCensus Report. The 2014 Myanmar Population and Housing Census. Vol. 2. Naypyitaw: Ministry of Immigration and Population. May 2015. p. 17.Archived from the original on 7 May 2019. Retrieved11 July 2015.
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