| Rajendra I | |
|---|---|
| Parakesari Varman, Yuddhamalla, Mummudi Cholan, Gangai Kondan, Kadaram Kondan,Jayasimha Kula Kaalan,Chalukya Chudaamani,Mannaikonda chola,[1] Thelagaramari (Telungu Kula Kaalan),Rattapadi Konda Chola | |
.JPG) Sculpture of Rajendra I represented asLord Chandikeswara (Gangaikonda Cholapuram) | |
| Chola Emperor | |
| Reign | 1014–1044[2] |
| Predecessor | Rajaraja I |
| Successor | Rajadhiraja I |
| Co-Regent of theChola Empire | |
| Reign | 30 May 1012 – 1014[3] |
| Emperor | Rajaraja I |
| Successor | Rajadhiraja I |
| King ofDakkinadesa King ofRuhuna | |
| Reign | 1017–1044 |
| Predecessor | Kassapa VI |
| Successor | Rajadhiraja I |
| Born | Madhurantaka Chola (971-07-26)26 July 971[4] Thanjavur,Chola Empire (modern dayTamil Nadu, India) |
| Died | 1044(1044-00-00) (aged 72–73) Brahmadesam, Chola Empire(modern dayTiruvannamalai, Tamil Nadu, India)[5] |
| Burial | End of 1044 Brahmadesam, Tamil Nadu, India[5] |
| Spouse |
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| Issue |
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| Dynasty | Chola |
| Military career | |
| Service | Chola Army Chola Navy |
| Service years | 992–1044 |
| Rank | Senathipathi (992–1014) Chakravarti (1014–1044) |
| Battles / wars | (seeRajendra's conquest chronology for a full list of battles and conquest) |
| Father | Rajaraja I |
| Mother | Vanavan Mahadevialias Tribhuvana Mahadevi |
| Religion | Hinduism[6] |
| Signature |  |
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Rajendra I[a] (26 July 971 – 1044), often referred to asRajendra the Great,[b] was aChola Emperor who reigned from 1014 to 1044. He was born inThanjavur toRajaraja I. His queen was Vanavan Mahadevi and he assumed royal power as co-regent with his father in 1012 until his father died in 1014, when Rajendra ascended to the Chola throne.
During his reign, the Chola Empire reached its zenith in theIndian subcontinent; it extended its reach via trade and conquest across theIndian Ocean, making Rajendra one of only a few Indian monarchs who conquered territory beyond South Asia.[10][11][12]
In his early years, Rajendra was involved in theChola Army, with which he fought in several campaigns against theWestern Chalukyas and the rulers ofAnuradhapura, earning him his first victories. He quelled rebellions in theChera andPandiya vassal states, and inSri Lanka. As Emperor, Rajendra completed the conquest of Ruhuna and brought an entire portion of Sri Lanka under imperial rule.[13][14] Rajendra expanded Chola rule by defeating the kingdoms ofKalinga andVengai, and subduing the islands ofLaccadives and theMaldives, which he renamedMunnir Palantivu Pannirayiram ("Twelve Thousand Islands and the Ocean Where Three Waters Meet"). These islands were later used as strategic naval bases. During hisSouth-East Asia campaign, he annexedSrivijaya,Kedah,Tambralinga andPegu, achieving imperial dominance in the region andstrengthening Indian influence in Southeast Asia.
Rajendra conducted a war against thePala dynasty and captured a great deal of wealth, which he used to build the city ofGangaikondacholapuram, the capital of theChola Empire, and one of the centers of trade and commerce in the empire for several centuries.[10] The city was remarkable for its artificial lake, extensive fortifications, moats surrounding the imperial palace, and theBrihadisvara Temple. Rajendra was a follower ofShaivism but welcomed Buddhism and built severalstupas across South-East Asia and South India.
New forms of trade emerged during Rajendra's reign such as the commercial system called "emporia," this was after the Chola's had gained control ofStrait of Malacca and several other coastal areas.[15] Emporia refers to exporting goods according to their demand, arose, making trade within the Empire profitable and helped maintain the Chola military. TheKhmer Empire was a major ally and trading partner, and helped the Cholas expand their networks as far asSong China. This link allowed Rajendra to incorporate Chinese vessels into theChola Military. These networks also extended west; the Cholas engaged in the spice trade withArabia,North Africa,Anatolia andTurkic peoples.
Rajendra Chola I was succeeded by his sonRajadhiraja I, who ruled from 1044 to 1054.[16]
The exact birth date of Rajendra I is unknown; it is speculated he was born around 971 CE.[17] He was the son ofRajaraja I and queen Vanathi, who is also called Thiripuvāna Mādēviyār. Rajendra had a younger brother named Araiyan Rajarajan, who became a commanding general of a Chola army, and at least three sisters; the younger sister was Kundavai (not to be confused withKundavai Pirattiyar), the queen of Chalukya-Vimaladitya; and a daughter called Mahadevi. Other significant members of the royal household include queen mother Dantisakti Vitanki—alias Lokamahadevi. Thenakshatra of Rajendra's birth wasThiruvathirai (Ardra).[18]
Rajendra was declared heir apparent and formally associated with his father in the administration of theChola Empire in the final years of his father's reign (1012–1014).[11] In 1018, Rajendra appointed his son Rajadhiraja as heir apparent or co-regent to the Chola throne, which Rajadhiraja occupied from 1018 to 1044.[19]
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On his father's behalf Rajaraja I, Rajendra I started his wars on the Indian mainland when he was a co-regent for his father in an expedition in 1012 with the capture Iditurai-nadu, (Ededore 2000), (was a stretch of country between the rivers Krishna on the north andTungabhadra on the south, comprising a large part of the presentRaichur doab) andBanavasi (in westernMysore inKarnataka). He then directed his attention to Kollipaakkai(Kulpak),about 45 miles northeast ofHyderabadinTelangana and captured it in 1013.[20]
In about 1014 - 1015 CE, Rajendra led a war against theRattapadi in northernKarnataka and southernMaharashtra. Rajendra was successful in striking at the heart of theChalukyan Empire and sacking and destroying capitalManyakheta.[21][22][23] He also capturedMalkheda on behalf of his father, which met this reversal after its initial capture by Rajaraja Cholan in 1006. With the death of Rajaraja Cholan I in 1014 CE and the ascension of Rajendra to the Chola throne in the same year. After a lapse of two years, in 1016, Rajendra sent a naval force to Sri Lanka and brought the Ruhuna Kingdom under his control.[14]
Following an expedition to easternKerala in 1017, Rajendra captured Kudamalai Nadu.[24]
In 1018, Rajendra's forces captured theMaldives andLakshadweep islands, and the same year captured Sandimaaththivu, theKavaratti island west of Kerala.[25][25]
In 1019, Rajendra sent another expedition against theRattapadi , northernKarnataka and southernMaharashtra. With its new capital atKalyan in northernmostKarnataka, which the Cholas lost again but recaptured afterBattle of Maski in easternKarnataka. After a two-year lapse, Rajendra, with his capture of many regions of the Indian mainland, became more ambitious in conquering the northern and north-western parts of India.[26]
He commenced his war expedition in this direction in 1021, capturing Sakkarakkoattam in the south ofChhattisgarh. Then, he sent part of his forces to theGanges river in the north and the other in a north-westerly direction. At the same time, he stationed himself at Sakkarakkoattam until the two expeditions were complete.[27]
The second expedition went to Uttarapatha andGangetic region countries towards the Ganges river in the north from Sakkarakkoattam; they captured the regions of Odda Vishayam and Thandabuththi inOdisha, Kosala Naadu in northern Chhattisgarh, Thakkana Laadam and Uttara Laadam inJharkhand, and Vangala Desam in modern-day Bangladesh, and reached the Ganges.[28]
The Chola Indian Mainland expedition ended in 1022, and details of the countries conquered by his forces in the expedition were included in his Meikeerthi's from 1023. With the return of Rajendra Chola's forces to the Chola capital in 1022, the Royal Guru of Rajendra, Isaana Pandithar, built Gangaikonda Cholaeswarer temple at Kulampandel, Tamil Nadu. With his return, Rajendra claimed a new title, "Gangaikondaan", and gave the title "Gangaikonda Cholan" (the Chola who captured Gangai) to his younger brother, who led the Gangetic expedition. Rajendra commenced the construction of a new city named "Gangaikonda Cholapuram", with a new Siva temple named "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarem" and a large temple water tank called "Chola Gangam", where the holy water brought from the Ganges river was mixed. The Essalam Copper Plates of Rajendra state with the conquest of the Gangetic region, Rajendra constructed the new city of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the great Gangaikonda Choleswarer temple, and the sacred Cholagangam Tank at the Udaiyar Palaiyam region of Ariyalur district. In the temple "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarem" he built, the presiding deity of the Karuvarai (Sanctum Sanctorum) called the "Gangaikonda Cholaeswarer" also known as "Peruvudaiyar" – the God Siva in the form of Lingam, the biggest Lingam among the Siva Temples in the world over, having a height of 13 feet (4.0 m) and a circumference of 20 ft (6.1 m). Thepraśasti mentions Rajendra's conquests:[29]
On the third Regnal year of Rajendra Chola – the conqueror of the East country, Ganges and Kadaram; this stone inscription was made to record the tax exemption grant given by Rajendra, the one who surrendered toShiva.[29]
The Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem Siva temple of Erumbur inCuddalore district – the present-day Kadambavanesvara temple near Erumbur – was built to commemorate the victory of Rajendra's forces over Sri Vijaya and many regions ofSumatra. The Kadaremkonda Cholaeswarem Siva temple in Kudimallur in Vellore district – present-day Bhimeswara temple near Kalavai – was built to commemorate Rajendra's victory over Kadarem and many regions of present-day Malaysia.[30]
Rajendra I's overseas war expedition commenced in 1023; a large fleet of ships with Chola warriors was sent to Sri Vijaya,Palembang in southern Sumatra, which was captured. After that, the fleet captured the adjacent settlement Malaiyur.[31] From there, the fleet sailed to the nearby island Bangha and captured Mevilibangham. The fleet then sailed toPannai, on the eastern Sumatran mainland, followed by Ilamuridesam in northern Sumatra. The forces next sailed to Malaysia and captured Vallaipandur in modern-day north-east Malaysia and Kadarem in north-west Malaysia. From here, Rajendra's forces sailed north and captured the adjacent settlement Ilankasokam in south-east Thailand, followed by Mathamalingam, eastern Thailand and Thalaitakkolam in south-west Thailand. From here, the fleet departed to India,en route capturing Manakkavaarem in theAndaman and Nicobar Islands, the southern Myanmar (Burma) seaport city Magpapaalam, and returned to Chola country.[14] The Chola south-east Asian expedition ended in 1024, and details of the lands conquered by his forces in this expedition were included in his Meikeerthan early silverkasu of 1025.[32] With Rajendra's victory over Sri Vijaya(m) of Sumatra in 1023, he built a Siva Temple at Erumbur, Tamil Nadu, and named it Vijayamkonda Cholaeswarem.
With his triumph over the Kadaram, Rajendra assumed the new title "Kadaremkondaan", and one of his grandsons who led the Kadaram expedition was given the title "Kadaremkonda Cholan" (the Chola who captured Kadarem). A region of the present-day Kudimallur, Tamil Nadu, was named "Kadarekonda Cholapuram". Some villages in present-day Tamil Nadu still bear the names Kidarankondan in Thiruvaarur and Ariyalur regions (present Gedaramkondan in Ariyalur) and Kadaramkonda Cholapuram (present Narasingpuram). With Rajendra's victories over Kadaram, Malaysia, in 1023, he built a Siva temple in northern Tamil Nadu and named it Kadaremkonda Cholaeswarem.[33]
Following Rajendra's victories in the wars on the Indian mainland and near-overseas, he built two "magnificent & gigantic temples completely out of Granite stone" as living monuments of his forces' great valour and superior status in this region, which are included in theUNESCO World Heritage Series.[34] The two granite temples were built to commemorate their triumphs far overseas and as monuments of the Chola's achievements in South-East Asia and the high status of the Medieval Chola Empire in the world history of that period (1025 CE).[35]
| Timeline | Conquests | Result |
|---|---|---|
| 992–1040 CE | Chalukya–Chola wars | Chola victory
|
| 1007 CE | Battle of Donur | Chola victory
|
| 993–1017 CE | Conquest of Anuradhapura | Chola victory
|
| 1018–1019 CE | Conquest of theChera Kingdom andPandya Kingdom | Chola victory
|
| 1018 CE | Conquest of theMaldives,Kavaratti andLakshadweep islands | Chola victory
|
| 1020 CE | Battle of Maski | Chola victory
|
| 1021 CE | Recovery ofVengi | Chola victory
|
| 1021 CE | Conquest of the Kalinga | Chola victory
|
| 1019 - 1021 CE | Conquest of the Ganges | Chola victory
|
| 1021 CE | Chola conquest of Chandra dynasty | Chola victory
|
| 1023-1025 CE | Chola conquest of the Nicobar island | Chola victory
|
| 1023–1025 CE | Conquest of Pegu | Chola victory |
| 1025 CE | Conquest of the Srivijaya Empire | Chola victory |
| 1025 CE | Chola conquest of the Langkasuka kingdom | Chola victory
|
| 1028 CE | Chola invasion of Kedah | Chola victory
|
| 1035 CE | Reconquest ofVengi | Chola victory
|
Rajendra led campaigns from 1002 CE; these include the conquest of theRashtrakutas and the campaigns against theWestern Chalukyas. He conquered the Chalukyan territories of Yedatore – a large part ofRaichur district between theKrishna and theTungabhadra rivers –Banavasi in north-westernMysore and the capitalManyakheta. Rajendra erected a Siva temple atBhatkal. He also conquered Kollipakkai, located north ofHyderabad in present-dayTelangana.[36] An excerpt from an inscription inTamil fromKolar states:
In the eighth year of the reign of Kopparakesarivanmar sri Rajendra Sola Deva, who, while the goddess of Fortune, having become constant, increased, and while the goddess of the great Earth, the goddess of victory in battle and the matchless goddess of Fame, having become his great queens, rejoiced-that in his extended lifetime, conquered with his great war-like army Idaiturai-nadu, Vanavasi(i.e.,Banavasi) shut in by a fence of continuous forests; Kollipakkai, whose walls were surrounded by sulli trees; Mannaikkadakkam(i.e.,Manyakheta) whose fortification was unapproachable.[37]
In 1018 and 1019 CE, Rajendra invaded and conquered thePandya andChera Perumal kingdoms.[38] He appointed one of his sons as viceroy with the titleJatavarman Sundara Chola-Pandya withMadurai as the headquarters in charge of both Pandya and Chera/Kerala.[39] As per inscriptions on a memorial stone, Rajendra took the highwayRajakesari Peruvazhi to reach theChera Nadu fromChola Nadu.[40]
Rajendra Chola I fought several battles withWestern Chalukyas. From 992 CE to 1008 CE, during the reign of Rajaraja I, Rajendra raided and annexed several towns, such asRattapadi,Banavasi andDonur (Bijapur District).[42][43]
Tailapa II and his sonSatyashraya,who were opponents ofRaja Raja Chola I andRajendra Chola I, ended up being defeated atAnnigeri and atKogali respectively.Jayasimha II was defeated in Kadambalige.Raja Raja Chola I invaded the Chalukya territory in 1003 - 1004 AD, and Achieve victory in many battles.Raja Raja Chola I DefeatedSatyashraya in pitched some battles and from cut of the treasures that he captured from him the temple atThanjavur was enriched.Tiruvalangadu plates ofRajendra Chola, state thatRaja raja defeatedSatyashraya who "fled to avoid misery from the attack of his (i. e. Arunmolivarman’s) ocean-like army, (still) misery found a (permanent) abode in him. In this BattleSatyashraya brother prince Dasavarman seems to have killed and Chalukya general dandanayaka Kesava was taken prisoner.[44][45]
Raja Raja Chola diverted attention fromVengi affairs to theSatyashraya to counteroffensive and sent an army under Crown PrinceRajendra Chola in Chalukya Country. Rajendra marched with a 900,000-strong army and Captured Santalige, Kadambalige,Banavasi,Kogali and besieged the fort of Unkallu in the modern Unkal district located in the Dharwad district. In this ensuing battle, the Cholas defeated the Chalukyas, and the Chalukya commander, Lenka Keta, was killed. After Rajendra Chola successfully captured Unkallu Fort and then encamped at Donur.[46][47]
Following the Siege of Unkallu Fort, Rajendra battled againstSatyashraya, who was opposing him in Donur. Kulpak andMalkhed became the objects of attack. In theBattle of Donur Rajendra defeatedSatyashraya and successfully raidedBanavasi, Donur (in theBijapur region), unkal (near modernHubli) ,Kudala sangama and parts of theRaichur Doab (called Iditurainadu) and securedGangavadi and Nolambavadi.[48][49][50][51] A mandapa atTiruvottiyur calledMannaikonda Chola was among the mementos of theRajendra Chola campaign.[52][53][54]
Hottur inscription attributed to IrivabedangaSatyashraya fromDharwad acknowledges his allegiance to the Western Chalukyas and highlights the Chola incursion. He accusesRajendra Chola of leading a massive force of 955,000 soldiers and causing havoc in Donuwara(Donur inBijapur district), blurring the ethical boundaries of warfare prescribed by theDharmaśāstras.[55]
Kanyakumari Inscriptions State that, Madhurantaka alias Rajendra-Chola :
(ConqueredKuntala, madeManyakheta a playground for his armies ; had the kings of Kuluta andUtkala slain and the chiefs ofKalinga and Vimsa destroyed ; burntKataha).[56]
In about 1014 - 1015 CE, Rajendra led a war against theRattapadi in northernKarnataka and southernMaharashtra. Rajendra was successful in striking at the heart of theChalukyan Empire and sacking and destroying capitalManyakheta.[57][58][59] He also capturedMalkheda on behalf of his father, which met this reversal after its initial capture by Rajaraja Cholan in 1007.The Kanyakumari Inscriptions, while recording the achievements of Rajendra Chola, state that the latter made Manyakheta the playground of his army.later, as Manyakheta’s loot was paraded in Thanjavur, Rajendra Chola declared that he had captured the ‘spotless fame’ of the Chalukyas, becoming a resplendent conqueror in his own right; he also proclaimed that he had fulfilled his father’s vow.[60][61]
In 1015,Jayasimha II became the king ofWestern Chalukyas. He tried to recover the losses suffered by his predecessorSatyashraya, who fled his capital and was later restored to the throne by Raja Raja I as a tribute-paying subordinate. Initially, Jayasimha II was successful because Rajendra was busy with his campaigns in Sri Lanka.[62] In 1021, after the demise of theEastern Chalukyan king Vimaladitya ofVengi, Jayasimha supported Vijayaditya VII's claim to the throne against the claims ofRajaraja Narendra, the son of Vimaladitya and Chola princess Kundavai.[62]Rajendra helped his nephewRajaraja Narendra defeat Vijayaditya who was supported byJayasimha II. On the Eastern front, Rajendra's general, Arayan Rajarajan, defeated Vijayaditya, who was supported by Jayasimha II. And Rajaraja Narendra was installed on the Vengi throne.[63][64] Vengi was later the site of the coronation of Rajendra's nephew following his victories in theChola expedition to North India.[65]
Western front Rajendra led a 900,000-strong army and defeatedJayasimha II at theBattle of Maski in 1020 AD.Following battle rajendra recapture Gangavadi and annexed Raichur from Western Chalukyas.[66]Rajendra foughtJayasimha II in theBattle of Maski.[62][67][68]
Rajendra chola Tiruvalangadu copper plates states,
“( He captured) the seven and a half lakhs ofRattapadi(which was) strong by nature, and vast quantities of treasure, together with the inestimable reputation ofJayasimha II, who out of fear and to his great disrepute, turned his back at Musangi (i.e.,Maski) and hide himself. ”[69]
That lord of Rattarashtra (i.e.,Jayasimha II) in order to escape from the fire of the terrible rage of the ornament of the Solar race (i.e.,Rajendra Chola) took to his heels with fear, abandoning all (his) family riches and reputation.[70]
"It may be no wonder that the fire of his anger burst into a flame as it came into contact with the descendant ofTailapa II . This, however, is strange that, having crossed the waters of all the oceans, it (the fire of his anger) consumed the enemy fuel"(dvisadindhana.)[71]
(conquest of the quarters with a powerful army ; invasion of the South, thePandya country and the flight of thePandya king to theMalaya hill ; hia son Chola-Pandya left in charge of the kingdom ; invasion of the Western region, crossing theSahya and flghting with and defeating the lord ofKerala and leaving Chola-Pandya in charge of the west also ; entry intoKanchi and conquest ofJayasimha II).
While in this consequentRajendra Chola I, he captured the whole ofRattapadi. In the battle at Musangi (Maski), as it is spelt in the inscriptions, and the description of this campaign states that Rajendra Chola started fromKanchipuram on his march againstChalukya Country; there was a fierce battle between the forces ofRajendra andJayasimha II , Jayasimha turned back and fled to the forests, and Rajendra returned to his capital with much booty.[74]
Rajendra Chola's nephew,Rajaraja Narendra Eight years after his coronation, the sovereignty ofVengi was changed. Rajaraja was driven out of the kingdom by his half-brother Vijayaditya in 1031 AD. Vijayaditya could not have overcome his brother and seizedVengi, and the only power that could have helped him in the enterprise was theWestern Chalukya monarchJayasimha II . The Western Chalukya general invadedVengi and captured the city of Bezwada(Vijayawada).SoRajaraja Narendra sought help in theChola court. SoonRajendra Chola sent an army under his general, the Brahman general Rajaraja Brahma Maharaja, together with two other officers. TheChola army marched onVengi and attacked thewestern Chalukyas in the village of Kalindindi. The battle ended indecisively, as both side generals who were engaged in the fight on either side, perished on the battlefield, neither side could claim victory. but theCholas failed to secureRajaraja Narendra to theVengi Throne. Therefore, in 1035 CE,Rajendra Chola sent another expedition toVengi under his son and co-regent,Rajadhiraja I. Rajadhiraja Succeeding and defeating theWestern Chalukya armies and driving them out of the Telugu country. Once againRajaraja Narendra was installed on theVengi throne.[75]
Under his father Rajaraja I, Rajendra Chola I's commanderVallavaraiyan Vandiyadevan commanded an army that invaded Sri Lanka and sacked the capital cityAnuradhapura.[76] The new Chola capital was atPolonnaruwa, which was renamed "Jananathamangalam", a title of Rajaraja. Chola official Tali Kumaran erected a Siva temple called Rajarajeshvara ("Lord of Rajaraja") in the town Mahatittha – modern Mantota, Mannar – which was renamed Rajaraja-pura.[77] Chola-occupied territories on the island were named Mummudicholamandalam after Mummudi Chola or Rajaraja I, Rajendra's father.[78]
During his reign, Rajendra's fatherRajaraja I annexed theKingdom of Anuradhapura in northern Sri Lanka. Rajendra invaded theKingdom of Polonnaruwa in the south in 1017.[79] Chola raids were launched southwards fromRajarata into Rohana. By his fifth year, Rajendra claimed to have completely conquered the island. The whole of Anuradhapura, including the south-eastern province Rohana, was incorporated into the Chola Empire.[13] According to the Sinhalese chronicleMahavamsa, the conquest of Anuradhapura was completed in the 36th year of the reign of the Sinhalese monarch Mahinda V – about 1017 to 1018.[13] But the Cholas never consolidated their control over the south of the island, which lacked large, prosperous settlements to tempt long-term Chola occupation. Under Rajendra, the Chola's predatory expansion in Sri Lanka approached a point of diminishing returns.[80] According to the Culavamsa and Karandai plates, Rajendra led a large army into Ruhuna kingdom and Ruhuna was incorporated into the Chola Empire[13] and captured Mahinda's crown, queen and daughter, a vast amount of wealth and the king himself, whom Rajendra took to India as a prisoner to India, where he died in exile in 1029.[81][13]
11–12 years after the Chola conquest of Rohana, Prince Kassapa, son of Mahinda, hid in Rohana, where Chola forces unsuccessfully searched for him. Soon after the death of Mahinda, Kassapa assumed theSinhalese monarchy asKassapa VI – also known as Vikramabahu – and reigned in Rohana from 1029 to 1040 while attempting to organise a campaign of liberation and unification. He became the king of Rohana after the 11–12 years of Chola rule in Rohana. Taking advantage of uprisings in thePandya andChera kingdoms,which seems to have no effect in this conflict, 2 Sinhala dandanayakas by the names of Budha and Kiththi defeated the Chola garrisons (on behalf of Kassapa IV) in a 6 month long battle at Palatupana in Rohana. The soldiers of the 95,000-strong Chola army withdrawn to Pulatthinagara across dhakkina principality. Prince Kassapa IV launched an unsuccessful raid into Pulattinagara but died because of a disease before he could consolidate his power to a second raid into Pulattinagara. A series of non-sinhalese ephemeral aspirants to the throne subsequently appeared and disappeared in Rohana without dislodging the Cholas from the north.[81] Kassapa VI's mysterious death in 1040, however, brought an end to the war until the rise of Vijayabahu. His successor Mahalana-Kitti (1040–1042) tried to lead a revolt against the Cholas but failed.[82]
_LACMA_M.87.272.5.jpg)
Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa I (1055–1110) descended from or claimed to be descended from the Sinhalese royal house, the House of Lambakanna II. By the age of seventeen, he had defeated his most-potent rivals in Rohana and was anxious to take on the Cholas.[81] The crisis in the country left a few scattered, turbulent chiefs and intractable rebels whose allegiance, if any, was at best opportunistic, which proved a problem to both sides in the conflict, frustrating both the Sinhalese kings and the Cholas. Vijayabahu, from his base in Rohana, faced a similar difficulty; he had to contend with the hostility of local chiefs who regarded him as a more-significant threat than the Cholas to their independence. For that reason, the Cholas recruited nominal support from rebel chiefs in Rohana. Vijayabahu needed help consolidating a firm territorial base from which to launch a decisive campaign against the Cholas. On another front, the Cholas needed to eliminate similar opposition in the north. Gradually the wider conflict developed into a prolonged, back-and-forth struggle of raids and counter-raids; the forces of Vijayabahu advanced upon Polonnaruva, and then fell back to fortresses in Dakkhinadesa and Rohana to withstand retaliatory Chola attacks and sieges.[81] The Chola reign over Sri Lanka persisted until 1070, the occupation ended in Chola withdrawal after a further series of indecisive clashes.[83]
In 1019 CE, Rajendra's forces marched throughKalinga towards the Ganges river. In Kalinga, the Chola forces defeated Indraratha, ruler of theSomavamsi dynasty.[84] Rajendra accepted the help of the Paramaras and the Kalachuris, with whom Indraratha had a bitter enmity, and Rajendra took advantage of this situation. The combined armies defeated Indraprastha, who was probably killed. The Chola army eventually reached thePala kingdom of Bengal, where they defeatedMahipala. The Chola army also defeated the last ruler of theKamboja Pala dynasty, Dharmapala of Dandabhukti.[85][86] The Chola army went on to raid eastern Bengal – modern-day Bangladesh – defeatedGovindachandra of theChandra dynasty, and invaded theBastar region.[87][88]
The Tamilpraśasti of Rajendra I reads:
(He seized) Śakkarakkōţţam, whose warriors were brave; Madura-maṇḍalam destroyed in a trice, the prosperous city of Nāmaṇaik-kōṇam with its dense groves. Pañcap-paḷḷi whose warriors (bore) cruel bows, Māśunideśa with its green fields; a large heap of family-treasures with many (other) treasures (which he carried away), after having conquered Indraratha of the ancient race of the moon, together with (his) family, in a fight which took place at Ādinagar, (a city) whose fame knew no decline; Oḍḍa-viṣaya which was difficult of approach on account of its dense forest defence; the good Kōśalai-nāḍu where Brahmins assembled; Taṇḍabutti in whose gardens bees abounded, (land which he acquired) after having destroyed Dharmapāla (in) a hot battle; Takkaṇalāḍam, whose fame reached (all) directions, (and which he occupied) after having forcibly attacked Raṇaśura; Vangāḷa-deśā, where the rain water never stopped, (and from which) Gōvindacandra fled, having descended (from his) male elephant; elephants of rare strength, women and treasure, (which he seized) after having been pleased to put to flight in a hot battlefield the strong Mahipāla by the sound of a conch from the deep sea; Uttiralāḍam (on the shore of) the expansive ocean (producing) pearls; and the Gangā whose waters bearing flagrant flowers dashed against the bathing places (tirtha)[89]
To celebrate his victory in the Ganges, Rajendra constructed a new capital atGangaikondacholapuram and builtGangaikonda Choleeswarar Temple, which is similar to theBrihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur. There has been general disagreement among historians on the nature of the expedition. Early scholars such asV. Venkayya interpreted Rajendra's campaign to "bring the waters of the Ganges into Chola territory" as a pilgrimage to the Ganges river.[90] This theory has been refuted by later historians, the most notable beingK. A. Nilakanta Sastri.[33] The military nature of the campaign is suggested by the last line of the Thiruvalangadu plates, which state the king erected the Cholaganga tank as aGanga-jalamayam jayasthambham ("liquid pillar of victory).[33]
The Chola expedition to the Ganges had a long-lasting influence. According to R. D. Banerji, aKannadiga chief who accompanied Araiyan Rajarajan on his campaign settled in Bengal and founded theSena Dynasty.[33] It is believed theKarnata people ofMithila might have descended from soldiers of the Chola army.[33] According to theSiddhantasaravali of Trilocana Sivacharya, manyShaiviteBrahmins from Bengal were taken to Chola country, where Rajendra granted them lands. They eventually settled inKanchipuram and theCauvery Delta, forming the Sivacharya community.[33]
Srivijaya was a kingdom centred inPalembang,Sumatra, and was ruled by theSailendra dynasty. During the reign ofMara Vijayatungavarman, Srivijaya had cordial relations with the Chola Empire during the reign of Rajaraja Chola I, leading to Mara Vijayatungavarman building theChudamani Vihara inNagapattinam.Sangrama Vijayatunggavarman succeeded Mara.
Khmer Emperor Suryavarman I started a war against the kingdom ofTambralinga on theMalay Peninsula, and requested aid from Rajendra.[91][92] After learning of Suryavarman's alliance with Rajendra, Tambralinga requested aid from Srivijaya, which Sangrama granted.[91][93] This led to the Chola invasion of the Srivijiya Empire. This belligerence were partly influenced by religion; the Chola andKhmer Empire were HinduShaivites, while Tambralinga and Srivijaya Empires wereMahayana Buddhists.[94][32]
The Cholas are known to have benefitted from bothpiracy and foreign trade. Sometimes, Chola naval expeditions led to plunder and conquest as far as South-east Asia.[95] While Srivijaya controlled two major naval choke points theMalacca andSunda Straits, the Malacca Strait's north-west opening was controlled from Kedah on the Malay Peninsula side and fromPannai on the Sumatran side.
In 1025 CE, Rajendra's Chola forces crossed theIndian Ocean and invaded Srivijaya, attacking several places in modern-day Malaysia and Indonesia.[96] The Cholas sacked the capitalKadaram andPannai on Sumatra, andMalaiyur on the Malay Peninsula. Rajendra also invadedTambralinga and theGangga Nagara Kingdom in modern-day Malaysia and southern Thailand.[97][98][99] Chola forces captured the last ruler of theSailendra DynastySangrama Vijayatunggavarman.[31] The Chola invasion was the end of Srivijaya.[100][101] Srivijaya's maritime power declined under the Chola attack.[102] Chola forces conquered large portions of Srivijaya, including its portsLigor, Kedah andTumasik (now Singapore).[102][103] The Chola invasion furthered the expansion of Tamil merchant associations such as theManigramam,Ayyavole andAinnurruvar into South-East Asia,[104][105][106][107] and for the next century, Tamil trading companies from southern India dominated the region.[100][101] Rajendra's expedition is mentioned in corrupted form as Raja Chulan in the medieval Malay chronicleSejarah Melaya, and Malay princes have names ending with Cholan or Chulan, such asRaja Chulan ofPerak.[108][109][110][111][112] One record of Rajendra describes him as the King ofLamuri in north Sumatra.[113] The Chola invasion led to the fall of theSailendra Dynasty of Srivijaya also coincided with the return voyage of the Buddhist scholarAtiśa from Sumatra to India in 1025.[114]
Despite the devastation, the Srivijaya mandala survived because the Chola attack was short and only meant to plunder so the invasion failed to install direct administration over Srivijaya. This invasion severely weakened the Srivijayan hegemony, and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms likeKahuripan and its successorKediri, inJava, which were based on agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance trade. Sri Deva was enthroned as the new king and trading activities resumed. Deva sent an embassy to the court of China in 1028.[115] The invasion was not followed by direct Cholan occupation, and the region was unchanged geo-politically, trade had considerable consequences. Tamil traders encroached on the Srivijayan realm that was traditionally controlled byMalay traders, and the Tamil guilds' influence increased on the Malay Peninsula and the north coast of Sumatra.[115]
With the growing presence of Tamil guilds in the region, relations between Srivijaya and the Cholas improved. Chola nobles were accepted in the Srivijaya court, and in 1067, a Chola prince named Divakara or Devakala was sent as a Srivijayan ambassador to the Imperial Court of China. The prince, who was the nephew of Rajendra Chola, was enthroned in 1070 asKulothunga Chola I. During the Kedah rebellion, Srivijaya asked the Cholas for help. In 1068,Virarajendra Chola launched a naval raid to help Srivijaya reclaim Kedah.[116] Virarajendra reinstated the Kedah king at the request of the Srivijayan Maharaja, and Kedah accepted Srivijayan sovereignty.[117][116]
Rajendra I died in 1044 in Brahmadesam, present-dayTiruvannamalai district, Tamil Nadu. Rajendra's sonRajadhiraja I recorded this information in an inscription, which states Rajendra's queen Viramahadevi committedsati upon her husband's death. Her remains were interred in the same tomb at Brahmadesam. It adds the queen's brother Madhuranthaka Parakesari Velan,[118] who was a general in Rajendra's army, constructed a watershed at the same place in memory of his sister.[5][119]
According to the Siddanta Saravali of Trilochana Sivacharya, Rajendra Chola I was a poet who composed hymns to praise the god Siva. A commentary on the same work says Rajendra brought severalSaivas from the banks of the Ganges river and settled them inKanchi and across the Chola Empire.[120]
After his successful campaign for the Ganges river in North India, Rajendra gained the titleGangaikonda Chola (The Chola who took the Ganges river). After his successful South-East Asian campaign, he gained the title "Kadaram Kondan" (He who took Kedah).[121]
He inherited the titleMummudi Cholan (Chola with three crowns) from his fatherMummudi, a title used by Tamil kings who ruled the three kingdoms ofCholas,Pandyas andCheras.[122] Rajendra assumed other titles to commemorate his conquests, such asMudigonda Cholan andIrattapadikonda Cholan.
Rajendra I bore the titleChalukya-Chudamani (Crest Jewel of the Chalukyas).[123]
Rajendra I had many queens; Tribhuvana or Vanavan Mahadevi, Mukkokilan, Puteri Onangki and Viramahadevi, the last of whom committed sati upon Rajendra's death.[12] He had seven sons; Rajarajan,Rajadhiraja,Manukula Kesari, Sanga Varman,Rajendra II, Rajamahendran andVirarajendra. Rajarajan was the eldest of the seven but died before reaching thirteen.Manukula Kesari died in 1021 during the war with theWestern Chalukyas. Arulmoli Nangaiyar Piranar and Ammangadevi (queen of eastern ChalukyaRajaraja Narendra and the mother ofKulottunga I) are the known daughters of Rajendra.[12]
| Name | Mother | Birth Date | Death Date | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rajarajan | Mukkokilan Adigal | 988 C.E. | Unknown | |
| Rajadhiraja I | Mukkokilan Adigal | 994 C.E. | 1052 C.E. (aged 58) | Chola Emperor from 1044 C.E. to 1052 C.E.; Died in theBattle of Koppam against thewestern Chalukyas |
| Manukula Kesari | Tiribhuvana( Vanavan Mahadevi) | 994 C.E | 1021 C.E. (aged 27) | Chola Governor of theCheras from 1018 C.E. to 1021 C.E. |
| Sanga Varman | Panchavan Mahadevi | 995 C.E | 1059 C.E. (aged 64) | Chola Governor of theMummudichola Mandalam (Polonnaruwa) from 1024 C.E. to 1059 C.E. |
| Rajendra II | Mukkokilan Adigal | 997 C.E | 1064 C.E. (aged 67) | Chola Emperor, from 1052 C.E. to 1064 C.E., Retains his father's possessions. |
| Rajamahendra | Unknown | 1000 C.E. | 1060 C.E (Aged 60) | Co-Regent of the Chola Empire under his brother Rajendra II from 1056 C.E. to 1060 C.E. |
| Virarajendra | Mukkokilan Adigal | 1002 C.E | 1070 C.E. (aged 68) | Chola Emperor from 1065 C.E. to 1070 C.E. and King of Kadaram(Kedah) from 1067 C.E. to 1070 C.E.; Put down several rebellions in Kadaram andSri Lanka but lost overSrivijaya. |
| Arulmoli Nangaiyar Piranar | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Queen of Kodumbalur King Elangovel Thrichirapalli |
| Ammangadevi | Unknown | Unknown | Unknown | Queen Consort ofeastern Chalukya KingRajaraja Narendra; Mother of Chola EmperorKulottunga I. |
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Rajendra Chola I built several sites.[124] Rajendra builtGangaikondacholapuram to commemorate his victory over thePala Dynasty. The name of the city Gangaikonda Cholapuram means "The City of the Conqueror of Ganga River" or "the town of the one who defeated the kings near the Ganga". The city has an artificial lake, which is filled with water from the Kollidam and Vellar rivers. The outer fortification in the city is wider than the inner one. The remains of the outer fortification consists of a mound encircling the palace.
Rajendra established Gangaikonda Cholapuram as his capital from the mediaeval Chola capitalThanjavur, which became the capital for the next 250 years.[35] Rajendra I built several temples using plans and infrastructure recommended in TamilVastu and Agamasastra texts.[125] These included aDharma Sasta, Vishnu and other temples. These temples were destroyed in the late 13th and 14th centuries, except the Brihadishvara temple. The other Chola landmarks are evidenced by soil-covered mounds and excavated, broken pillar stumps and brick walls found over several kilometres from the surviving temple.[125][126]
Rajendra states Dehejia must have involved the same artisans used by his father and transferred them from Thanjavur.[127] Most or all of the Chola kings from Rajendra I had their coronations at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. Archaeological excavations have revealed fort walls and palace remains a few kilometres from this temple.
Rajendra also built a royal palace of burnt brick. The ceilings were covered with small, flat tiles laid in several courses in a fine lime mortar. The pillars were probably made of polished wood and were supported on granite bases; a few pillar bases have survived. Iron nails and clamps have been recovered from this palace site. A tunnel links the palace and the temple's inner first prakaara to the north.
Rajendra also developedKoneswaram temple inTrincomalee. The temple toBhadrakali, which is located further along the complex inland along Konesar Road, benefitted from Rajendra.[128] The Kali temple is mentioned in the bookBirds of Prey (1997) byWilbur Smith, which is set in the 1660s. TheThirukonasala Mahatyam, describing the origins of the world, Lanka and Koneswaram based on puranic legends, is lost. The historical literatureMattakallappu Manmiyam (Batticaloa Manmiyam) chronicles the Tamil settlement in Batticaloa; it follows theDakshina Kailasa Puranam andDakshina Kailasa Manmiam in its description of Koneswaram as one of the nine most-important and sacred sites in the world for Hindus.[129]
Rajendra also expanded thePathirakali Amman Temple in Trincomalee. It attracted many pilgrims during his reign.
Rajendra developed an efficient water management system from the village level upwards. The increase in royal patronage, and the number ofdevadana andbramadeya lands increased the role of the temples and village assemblies. Committees like (tank committee) and totta-variam (garden committees) were active, and the temples had vast resources in land, men and money.
Rajendra built a large tank named Cholagangam in his capital city Gangaikonda Cholapuram, and it was described as the liquid pillar of victory.
Ottakoothar'sVikrama Cholan Ula mentions Rajendra's conquests:
The king Rajendra Chola, generous as Karpaga tree that gives whatever one wants, went with his army, conquered and ruled and protected the land,where Ganges flows and Kadaram. He belongs to the lineage of Vikrama[130]
— Ottakoothar, Vikrama Cholan Ula, verse 18
The Malay-languageHikayat Iskandar Zulkarnain was written aboutAlexander the Great asDhul-Qarnayn, and from it, the ancestry of several South-East Asian royal families is traced toIskandar Zulkarnain (Alexander the Great).[131] through Rajendra (Raja Chulan, Raja Cholan) in theMalay Annals such as the SumatranMinangkabau royalty.[132][133]
Several inscriptions of Rajendra commemorating his reign and conquests have been found. An inscription at Adhipuriswara temple inChengalpattu district gives his natal star asTiruvadarai. Donations were made to the temple to celebrate the king's birthday in Maargali.[134] An inscription at Umamahesvara temple in Konerirajapuram,Thanjavur district, refers to donations by Alvar Parantakan Kundavai-Pirattiyar during the third year of Rajendra's reign.[135]
The walls ofRajarajeswaramudaiya Mahadevar Temple, built by his father and later developed by Rajendra, include inscriptions describing many donations to the temple made by Rajendra.[136]
Rajendra appointed his son Rajadhiraja as heir apparent to the Chola throne in 1018.[19] Large military expeditions, like the Pandya and Chalukya wars, were carried out by Rajadhiraja.[137] The prominent officials of the time were:
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| Preceded by | Chola dynasty 1012–1044 CE | Succeeded by |