A warrior with shaggy breeches, killing a beast, on one of theTorslunda plates. The man has been identified with Ragnar Lodbrok in an early Swedish version of the legend (Schück). More recently, it has been interpreted as showing a Germanic initiation ritual in which shaggy trousers played a role and which may subsequently have contributed to the legend of Ragnar Lodbrok.[7]
According to theTale of Ragnar Lodbrok,Tale of Ragnar's Sons,Heimskringla,Hervarar saga ok Heiðreks,Sögubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum, and many other Icelandic sources, Ragnar was the son of the king of SwedenSigurd Ring. Nearly all of thesagas agree that the Danish kingRandver was Sigurd's father, with theHervarar saga citing his wife as Åsa, the daughter of KingHarald of the Red Moustache from Norway. The accounts further tell that Randver was a grandson of the legendary Scandinavian kingIvar Vidfamne by his daughter Aud (whom theHervarar saga calls Alfhild).[8] After the death of King Ivar Vidfamne, Aud's eldest son by the Danish kingHrœrekr Ringslinger, Harald, conquered all of his grandfather's territory and became known asHarald Wartooth. Harald's nephew Sigurd Ring became the chief king of Sweden after Randver's death (Denmark according to theHervarar saga), presumably as the subking of Harald. Sigurd and Harald fought theBattle of the Brávellir (Bråvalla) on the plains ofÖstergötland, where Harald and many of his men died. Sigurd then ruled Sweden and Denmark (being sometimes identified with a Danish kingSigfred who ruled from about 770 until his death prior to 804). He sired a son with the princess Alfhild of the petty kingdom ofÁlfheimr, Ragnar Lodbrok, who succeeded him.[9]Eysteinn Beli, who according to theHervarar Saga was Harald Wartooth's son, ruled Sweden sometime after Sigurd until he was slain by the sons of Ragnar andAslaug.[10]
In their accounts of his reign, thefornaldarsǫgur (Legendary sagas, or sagas of Scandinavian prehistory),[11][12] tell more about Ragnar's marriages than about feats of warfare. In theSaga of Ragnar Lothbrok,[13] Ragnar is introduced by introducing his alleged father who was Sigurd Ring that according to the Saga, ruled over Denmark. In the Saga, Ragnar is Introduced as a big man, handsome and well-provided with wisdom. He was good to his men and cruel to his enemies. Ragnar's first account in the saga was to assemble an army, a fleet of ships, becoming a great warrior and slaying a dragon in the Norse lands of Götaland.
According to theSögubrot, "he was the biggest and fairest of men that human eyes have seen, and he was like his mother in appearance and took after her kin".[14] He first killed a giant snake that guarded the abode of theGeatish jarlHerrauð's daughterThora Borgarhjort, thereby winning her as his wife. The unusual protective clothes that Ragnar wore when attacking the serpent earned him the nickname Lodbrok.[a] His sons with Thora wereErik and Agnar. After Thora died, he discoveredKráka, a woman of outstanding beauty and wisdom living with a poor peasant couple in Norway, and married her. This marriage resulted in the sonsIvar the Boneless,Björn Ironside,Hvitserk,Ragnvald, andSigurd Snake-in-the-Eye.[15] Kráka was later revealed to actually be Aslaug, a secret daughter of the renowned heroSigurd Fafnesbane. As the sons grew up to become renowned warriors, Ragnar, not wishing to be outdone, resolved to conquer England with merely two ships. He was, however, defeated by superiorNorthumbrian forces and was thrown into asnake pit to die.[16][17] TheSaga of Ragnar Lodbrok,Tale of Ragnar's Sons, andHeimskringla all tell of theGreat Heathen Army that invaded England at around 866, led by the sons of Ragnar Lodbrok to wreak revenge against KingÆlla of Northumbria who is told to have captured and executed Ragnar.
Neither of these sources mentions Ragnar Lodbrok as a Danish ruler. The first to do so isSaxo Grammaticus in his workGesta Danorum (c. 1200). This work mixes Norse legend with data about Danish history derived from the chronicle ofAdam of Bremen (c. 1075).[20] Here Ragnar's father Sigurd Ring is a Norwegian prince married to a Danish princess, and different from the victor of Brávellir (who had flourished about thirteen generations earlier). Sigurd Ring and his cousin and rival Ring (that is, Sigfred andAnulo of recorded history, d. 812) are both killed in battle, whereupon Ragnar is elevated to the Danish kingship (identified by Saxo withRagnfred, d. 814[21]).[22] His first deed is the defeat of the Swedish king Frö, who has killed Ragnar's grandfather. Ragnar is assisted in this by a ferociousshield-maiden namedLadgerda (Lagertha), whom Ragnar forces to marry him after killing a bear and a great hound to win her hand. In this marriage, he sires the son Fridleif and two daughters.[23] Ragnar later repudiates his marriage to Ladgerda and marriesThora Borgarhjort, a daughter of the Swedish king Herrauðr, after killing two venomous giant snakes that guard Thora's residence. His sons with Thora are Radbard, Dunvat,Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye, Björn Ironside, Agnar and Ivar the Boneless. From a non-marital relationship with an unnamed woman (described only as the daughter of a man named Esbjørn), Ragnar fatheredUbbe. Another, final marriage to Svanlaug (possibly another name for Aslaug) produces another three sons: Ragnvald,Eric Weatherhat andHvitserk.[24]
The sons were installed as sub-kings in various conquered territories. Ragnar led a Viking expedition to England and killed its king, Hama, before killing the earls of Scotland and installing Sigurd Snake-in-the Eye and Radbard as governors. Norway was also subjugated, and Fridleif was made ruler there and inOrkney. Later on, Ragnar with three sons invaded Sweden where a new king called Sörle had appeared and withheld the heritage of Thora's sons. Sörle and his army were massacred, and Björn Ironside was installed on the throne.[25] Sometime later Björn was put in charge of Norway, while Ragnar appointed another son, Eric Weatherhat, as ruler in Sweden; he was subsequently killed by a certainEysteinn. One of the sons, Ubbe, revolted against his father at the instigation of his maternal grandfather Esbjørn, and could only be defeated and captured with utmost effort.[26] Saxo moreover tells of repeated expeditions to theBritish Isles, one of which cost the lives of Dunvat and Radbard. Ælla, son of Hama, with the help of allies known collectively as theGalli – possibly a group ofNorse-Gaels (who were known in Old Irish asGall-Goídil),[27] expelled Ragnar's sub-ruler Ivar the Boneless from England and remained a persistent enemy.[28] Finally, theScythians were forced to accept Hvitserk as their ruler. In the end, Hvitserk was treacherously captured by theHellespontian prince Daxon and burnt alive with his own admission. Hearing this, Ragnar led an expedition toKievan Rus' and captured Daxon who was spared and exiled.[29]
Unlike the Icelandic sources, Saxo's account of Ragnar Lodbrok's reign is largely a catalog of successful Viking invasions over an enormous geographical area. Among the seaborne expeditions was one against theBjarmians andFinns (Saami) in the Arctic north. The Bjarmian use of magic spells caused foul weather and the sudden death of many Danish invaders, and the Finnish archers on skis turned out to be a formidable foe. Eventually, these two tribes were put to flight, and the Bjarmian king was slain.[30] The historical kingHarald Klak is by Saxo (based on a passage in Adam's chronicle) made into another persistent enemy of Ragnar, who several times incited theJutes andScanians to rebel, but was regularly defeated. After the last victory over Harald, Ragnar learned that King Ælla had massacred Ragnar's men onIreland. Incensed, he attacked the English king with his fleet but was captured and thrown to his death in the snake pit – the fate ascribed by tradition to the earlyBurgundian kingGunnar, as recounted in the Icelandic sagas. In spite of all his praise for Ragnar Lodbrok, Saxo also considers his fate as God's rightful vengeance for the contempt he had shown the Christian religion.[31]
While the narrative Norse sources date from the 12th and 13th centuries, there are also many older poems that mention him and his kin. TheRagnarsdrápa, ostensibly composed byBragi Boddason in the 9th century, praises a Ragnar, son of Sigurd, for a richly decorated shield that the poet has received. The shield depicts the assault onJörmunrek, theHjaðningavíg tale, the ploughing ofGefjon, andThor's struggle with theMidgard Serpent. Recent scholarship has suggested that the poem is in fact from c. 1000 and celebrates the Norse reconquest of England. The four tales depicted on the shield would then symbolize four aspects of the Lodbrok saga (the initial defeat of the sons of Lodbrok in England due to recklessness, Ivar the Boneless's deceitful approach to King Ælla, Ivar's cunning snatching of land from Ælla, Ragnar's struggle against the giant serpent in order to win Thora).[32] TheKnutsdrapa ofSigvat Thordarson (c. 1038) mentions the death of Ælla at the hands of Ivar inYork, who "carved the eagle on Ælla's back".[33] From this, the story of the atrocious revenge of Lodbrok's sons already seems to be present. The reference to a "blood eagle" punishment has, however, been much debated by modern scholars.[34] Another lay,Krakumal, put in the mouth of the dying Ragnar in the snake pit, recounts the exploits of Ragnar and mentions battles over a wide geographical area, several relating to the British Isles. The poem's name, "Kráka's lay", alludes to Ragnar's wife'sKráka,[35] though modern philologists commonly date it to the 12th century in its present form.[36]
The poem theLay of Kraka orKrakumal[37] tells the last words of Ragnar Lothbrok during his execution by King Aellla of the Kingdom of Northumbria. In the poem Ragnar makes its usual mentions of different Norse divinities and magical elements such as Valhalla as in the end of the poem Ragnar says:
We hewed with the brand! Full gladly do I go! See the Valkyrjar fresh from Odin's halls! High-seated among heroes shall I quaff the yellow-mead. The Aesir welcome me. Laughing gladly do I die!
There is one runic inscription mentioning Lodbrok, carved on the prehistorical tumulus ofMaeshowe on Orkney in the early 12th century. It reads: "This howe was built a long time before Lodbrok's. Her sons, they were bold; scarcely ever were there such tall men of their hands".[38] The expression "her sons" has given rise to the theory that Lodbrok was originally thought of as a woman,[39] mother of the historically known sons.[34]
TheSiege of Paris and the Sack of Paris of 845 were the culmination of a Viking invasion of the kingdom of the West Franks. The Viking forces were led by a Norse chieftain named "Reginherus", or Ragnar.[40] This Ragnar has often been tentatively identified with the legendary saga figure Ragnar Lodbrok,[41] but the accuracy of this is disputed by historians.[42][43] Ragnar Lodbrok is also sometimes identified with a Ragnar who was awarded land inTorhout,Flanders, byCharles the Bald in about 841 but eventually lost the land as well as the favour of the King.[44] Ragnar's Vikings raidedRouen on their way up the Seine in 845 and in response to the invasion, determined not to let the royalAbbey of Saint-Denis (near Paris) be destroyed, Charles assembled an army which he divided into two parts, one for each side of the river.[45][42] Ragnar attacked and defeated one of the divisions of the smaller Frankish army, took 111 of their men as prisoners and hanged them on an island on the Seine to honour theNorse godOdin, as well as to incite terror in the remaining Frankish forces.[40][42] Ragnar's fleet made it back to his overlord, the Danish KingHorik I, but Ragnar soon died from a violent illness that also spread in Denmark.[46]
Among the oldest texts to mention the name Lodbrok is the Norman history ofWilliam of Jumièges from c. 1070. According to William, the Danish kings of old had the custom to expel the younger sons from the kingdom to have them out of the way. It was during the time this practice was in fashion that King Lodbrok succeeded his unnamed father on the Danish throne. After gaining power, he honoured the said custom and ordered his junior son Björn Ironside to leave his realm. Björn thus left Denmark with a considerable fleet and started to ravage in West Francia and later theMediterranean.[47] Roughly contemporary with William isAdam of Bremen whose history of theArchbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen contains many traditions about Viking Age Scandinavia. In a passage referring to the Viking raids of the late 9th century, he mentions the Danish or Norse pirates Horich, Orwig, Gotafrid, Rudolf, and Inguar (Ivar). This Ivar is, in particular, seen as a cruel persecutor of Christians, and a son of Lodbrok (Inguar, filius Lodparchi).[48]
Anglo-Saxon and Irish accounts of the father of Ivar and Halfdan
According to the contemporaryAnglo-Saxon Chronicle andAsser'sLife of Alfred, in 878 the "brother of Hingwar and Healfden", with a naval fleet, a contingent of the Great Heathen Army invadedDevon in England and fought theBattle of Cynwit. There the Vikings lost, their king slain and many dead, with few escaping to their ships. After the battle theSaxons took great plunder, and among other things the banner called "Raven".[49] The early 12th centuryAnnals of St Neots further state that "they say that the three sisters of Hingwar and Hubba, daughters of Lodebroch (Lodbrok), wove that flag and got it ready in one day. They say, moreover, that in every battle, wherever the flag went before them, if they were to gain the victory, a live crow would appear flying on the middle of the flag; but if they were doomed to be defeated, it would hang down motionless, and this was often proved to be so."[50] This is among the earlier references to the legendary hero Ragnar Lodbrok.
The IrishCogad Gáedel re Gallaib from the 12th century, with information deriving from earlier annals, mentions king Halfdan (d. 877) under the name "mac Ragnaill".[51] The form Ragnall may refer to either Ragnvald or Ragnar and the entry is a strong indication that the name of Ivar's and Halfdan's father was really Ragnar or a similar name.[52] The early 11th centuryThree Fragments contains a passage that gives a semi-legendary background to the capture of York by the Vikings in 866. The two younger sons of Halfdan, King ofLochlann, expelled the eldest son, Ragnall, who sailed to theOrkney islands with his three sons and settled there. Two of the sons later raided the English andFranks, proceeding to plunder in the Mediterranean. One of them learned from a vision that Ragnall had fought a battle where the third son had been slain and in which he himself had most likely perished. The two Viking sons then returned home with a lot of dark-skinned captives.[53] It has been hypothesized that this is an Irish version ofRagnar Lodbrok's saga, the Mediterranean expedition being a historical event taking place in 859-61.[54]
In theSaga of Ragnar Lothbrok[13] (Old Norse:Ragnars saga loðbrókar) This Icelandic saga, composed in the 13th century, is one of the most detailed sources about Ragnar's life and exploits. It describes Ragnar's rise to fame, his marriages (including to the shieldmaiden Lagertha and the noblewoman Thora Borgarhjort), and his legendary deeds.
The saga highlights Ragnar's divine connections, particularly his descent from Odin, framing him as a semi-mythical hero blessed with the qualities associated with the Allfather, such as wisdom, courage, and poetic speech. The first account of Ragnar in the saga is the tale of Ragnar killing a dragon, showing the close relation between Ragnar and legendary/magical deeds.
When the Saga accounts Ragnar's death the story also tells "So Ragnar was let down into a serpent-pit, and he sat there a long time while none of the snakes would bite him. And some people said, 'This is a great man; no weapons would bite him today, and now the serpents will not bite him.'"
The sons are portrayed as avenging their father's death and continuing his legacy. Their divine lineage through Ragnar and their heroic deeds further enhance Ragnar's legendary status.
TheGesta Danorum,[55] written in Latin in the 12th century, this work by the Danish historianSaxo Grammaticus provides one of the earliest accounts of Ragnar and his feats. Saxo portrays Ragnar as a Danish king and warrior, blending historical and mythical elements. While Saxo does not explicitly emphasize Ragnar's descent fromOdin, the narrative incorporates divine and heroic motifs that align with Norse tradition.
Poetic references to Ragnar or figures resembling him appear in Norse skaldic poetry and eddic poems, often linking heroes to divine ancestry as a way of enhancing their heroic status. In the "Krákumál,"[56][37] many of the poem's stanzas have Ragnar making claims aboutValhalla,Odin and theValkyrs, showing how Ragnar was closely related withNorse Mythology.
The saga as published byNorstedts in a large-size illustrated version (1880).
TheGreat Heathen Army is said to have been led by the sons of Ragnar Lodbrok, to wreak revenge against King Ælla of Northumbria who had previously executed Ragnar by casting him into a pit full of venomous snakes.[57] Among the organizers were at least some of the brothers:Ivar the Boneless,Ubba,Halfdan,Björn Ironside,Hvitserk, andSigurd Snake-in-the-Eye, all of whom are known as historical figures, save the slightly more dubious Hvitserk.[58] Ivar the Boneless was the leader of the Great Heathen Army from 865 to 870, but he disappears from English historical accounts after 870.[59] The Anglo-Saxon chroniclerÆthelweard records Ivar's death as 870.[60]Halfdan Ragnarsson became the leader of the Great Heathen Army in about 870 and he led it in an invasion of Wessex.[61] A great number of Viking warriors arrived from Scandinavia, as part of the Great Summer Army, led by KingBagsecg of Denmark, bolstering the ranks of Halfdan's army.[62]
According to theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle, the Danes battled the West Saxons nine times, including theBattle of Ashdown on 8 January 871, where Bagsecg was killed.[63] Halfdan accepted a truce from the futureAlfred the Great, newly crowned king of Wessex.[64] After Bagsecg's death, Halfdan was the only remaining king of the invading host. He may also have been a King of part of Denmark (Jutland?), since a co-rulerHalfdan is mentioned in Frankish sources in 873.[65] According to late sagas Björn Ironside became King of Sweden and Uppsala, although this presents chronological inconsistencies.[66] Björn had two sons,Erik andRefil Björnsson. His son Erik became the next king of Sweden, and was succeeded in turn byErik Refilsson, the son of Refil.[67] Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye is perhaps the same person asSigfred, brother of Halfdan, who was king in Denmark together with Halfdan in 873.[68] According to the sagas Sigurd became King ofZealand,Skåne and the lesser Danish Isles.[69] Sigfred-Sigurd possibly succeeded his brother Halfdan as King of entire Denmark in about 877, and may be the Viking king Sigfred who was killed in West Francia in 887.[70]
Ragnar Lodbrok is famously associated with several daring raids, including theSiege of Paris in 845 CE and expeditions in England. These raids encapsulate the Viking era's maritime prowess and opportunistic expansion. In theSaga of Ragnar Lothbrok[13] the saga tells the different exploits and raids made by Ragnar as well as in theAnnals of St. Bertin[71] the author talks about the chieftain Reginherus or Ragnar's exploits and raiding in medieval Frankia.
The legends of Ragnar Lodbrok emphasize the Norse pursuit of glory, honor, and wealth. The stories of Ragnar's courage and cunning, including his use of a fleet of ships to breach Paris, reflect the strategic brilliance attributed to Viking leaders.
The Sagas portray Ragnar as descended fromOdin, tying him to the divine and emphasizing his extraordinary qualities. His death, allegedly in a pit of venomous snakes ordered by King Ella of Northumbria, is portrayed as a moment of stoic heroism, enhancing his mythic status.
Ragnar's story is preserved in medieval texts such asThe Saga of Ragnar Lothbrok[13] and Saxo Grammaticus'sGesta Danorum.[55] These works helped to shape and form the myth and the legends of the Viking hero and inspired later historical and literary traditions.
In Scandinavian history, Ragnar Lodbrok and similar legendary figures have served as symbols of national pride and resilience, particularly during periods of cultural revival.
Ragnar Lodbrok's legendary status as a Viking chieftain and hero exemplifies the warrior aristocracy that defined Viking society during the early medieval period. The warrior aristocracy was a class of elite warriors who wielded political power, wealth, and influence based on their martial prowess, leadership, and ability to secure loyalty through plunder and patronage. In the poemHávamál, many different rules are highlighted to show what a good Norse warrior ought to be. Ragnar's life is easily comparable to the different rules highlighted in theHávamál.[72] Ragnar's role within this societal structure highlights the values and dynamics of Viking leadership.
Ragnar is depicted as a charismatic and strategic leader who led numerous successful raids across Europe, including England and Francia. These exploits elevated his status as a powerful chieftain and warlord within the Viking hierarchy. His ability to gather and command loyal warriors was central to his influence, as a successful Viking leader depended on retaining a retinue of well-armed and motivated followers.
In Viking society, wealth and fame were essential to a leader's prestige. In the Norse poemHávamál[72] many of the stanzas tell about the relevance of wealth, fame and glory. In one of the stanzas from theHávamál,[72] the poem says:
Kinsmen die, You yourself die, gods and gold die; an honourable name will never die, one which was won by your own work[72]
Ragnar's legendary exploits, such as hissiege of Paris in 845 CE, illustrate his role in securing riches and reputation for himself and his men. The warrior aristocracy was sustained through the acquisition of plunder and tribute, and Ragnar's reputed success in these endeavors exemplify the ideals of Viking leadership.
Ragnar's role as a progenitor of a line of prominent Viking leaders, such as his legendary sonsIvar the Boneless,Bjorn Ironside, andSigurd Snake-in-the-Eye, help explain the importance of kinship ties in maintaining aristocratic power. His sons' significant roles in Viking conquests and the establishment of theDanelaw reflect how Ragnar's legacy reinforced the continuity of aristocratic dominance.
Ragnar's exploits exemplify the broader ambitions of the Viking warrior aristocracy, which sought to expand their influence through exploration, trade, and conquest. His legendary journeys to England and beyond reflect the aristocracy's role in driving Viking expansion and shaping early medieval Europe.
Ragnar receivesKráka (Aslaug), as imagined byAugust Malmström.19th-century artist's impression of Ælla of Northumbria's execution of Ragnar Lodbrok
Whereas Ragnar's sons Ivar the Boneless, Halfdan Ragnarsson, Björn Ironside, Ubba and Sigurd Snake-in-the-Eye are historical figures, opinion regarding their father is divided. Contemporary academia regards most of the stories about him to be fiction. According toHilda Ellis Davidson, writing in 1979, "Certain scholars in recent years have come to accept at least part of Ragnar's story as based on historical fact."[73]
The most significant medieval sources that mention Ragnar include:
theKrákumál, Ragnar's death-song, an old and mysterious skaldic poem
In her commentary on Saxo'sGesta Danorum, Davidson notes that Saxo's coverage of Ragnar's legend in book IX of theGesta appears to be an attempt to consolidate many of the confusing and contradictory events and stories known to the chronicler into the reign of one king, Ragnar. That is why many acts ascribed to Ragnar in theGesta can be associated, through other sources, with various figures, some of whom are more historically tenable.[73]
The candidates scholars like to associate with the "historical Ragnar" include:
KingReginfrid (d. 814), a king who ruled part of Denmark in tandem with his brotherHarald Klak, but was expelled by Horik I and his brothers and later fell in a battle against them
Attempts to reliably associate the legendary Ragnar with one or several of those men have failed because of the difficulty in reconciling the various accounts and their chronology. But the tradition of a Viking hero named Ragnar (or similar) who wreaked havoc in mid-9th-century Europe and who fathered many famous sons is remarkably persistent, and some aspects of it are strengthened by relatively reliable sources, such as Irish historical tradition and, indirectly, theAnglo-Saxon Chronicle.[27]
Richard Parker's 1957 historical novelThe Sword ofGanelon explores the character of Ragnar, his sons, and Viking raiding culture.[77]
The 1958 filmThe Vikings based on Marshall's novel, in which Ragnar, played byErnest Borgnine, is captured by King Ælla and cast into a pit of wolves; a son named Einar [sic], played byKirk Douglas, vows revenge and conquersNorthumbria with help from half-brother (and sworn enemy) Eric (played byTony Curtis), who also had much to avenge upon King Aella.
The 2020 release ofUbisoft'sAssassin's Creed Valhalla features Ragnar's children continuing to reign, plunder, and settle eastern England during the 9th century. Ragnar himself is briefly seen in a flashback of his execution.[80]
^McTurk (1991)Studies in 'Ragnar's Saga Lodbrokar' and Its Major Scandinavian Analogues. Society for the Study of Mediaeval Languages Lit. p. 10, 15, 36, 37
^Tolkien, Christopher; Turville-Petre, G., eds. (1956)."Hervarar Saga ok Heidreks"(PDF).Viking Society for Northern Research. London:68–9.Archived(PDF) from the original on 1 August 2019. Retrieved20 October 2019.
^abcdefCrawford, Jackson (2017).The Saga of the Volsungs: With the Saga of Ragnar Lothbrok. Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Incorporated.ISBN978-1-62466-635-3.
^Smyth, Alfred P. (1977)Scandinavian kings in the British Isles 850–880. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 263 & 279
^Smyth, Alfred P. (1977)Scandinavian kings in the British Isles 850–880. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 62
^Smyth, Alfred P. (1977)Scandinavian kings in the British Isles 850–880. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 64-5.
^abSaxo Grammaticus; Friis-Jensen, Karsten (2015).Gesta Danorum: the history of the Danes. Oxford medieval texts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-820523-4.
^Forte, Angelo; Oram, Richard; Pedersen, Frederik (2005). Viking Empires (First ed.). Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0521829922
^Giles, J. A., ed. (2010).Six Old English Chronicles: Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Life Of Alfred, Geoffrey Of Monmouth's British History, Gildas, Nennius And Richard Of Cirencester. Kessinger Publishing, LLC.ISBN978-1163125991
^Forte, A; Oram, RD; Pedersen, F (2005).Viking Empires. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-82992-2. p. 72
^Hooper, Nicholas Hooper; Bennett, Matthew (1996). The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare: the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-44049-1. p. 22
^Costambeys, M (2004). "Hálfdan (d. 877)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press.doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/49260
^Forte, A; Oram, RD; Pedersen, F (2005).Viking Empires. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-0-521-82992-2. pp. 72–73
^Carl Bernadotte et al. (1956),Sveriges hundra konungar. Stockholm: Biblioteksböcker, p. 81.
^Tolkien, Christopher; Turville-Petre, G., eds. (1956)."Hervarar Saga ok Heidreks"(PDF).Viking Society for Northern Research. London: 69.Archived(PDF) from the original on 1 August 2019. Retrieved20 October 2019.
"Krákumál",Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde, Vol. 17 (2001), p. 299–302.
McTurk, Rory (1991).Studies in Ragnars saga loðbrókar and Its Major Scandinavian Analogues. Medium Aevum Monographs. Vol. 15.ISBN0-907570-08-9.
Magnusson, Magnus (2008).The Vikings: Voyagers of Discovery and Plunder. Osprey Publishing.ISBN978-1-84603-340-7.
"Ragnarsdrápa",Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde, Vol. 24 (2003), p. 112-117.
"Ragnars saga Loðbrókar",Reallexikon der germanischen Altertumskunde, Vol. 24 (2003), p. 108-112.
Schlauch, Margaret (transl.) (1964).The Saga of the Volsungs: the Saga of Ragnar Lodbrok Together with the Lay of Kraka. New York: American Scandinavian Foundation.
Smyth, Alfred P. (1977).Scandinavian kings in the British Isles 850–880. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Strerath-Bolz, Ulrike (1993).ReviewArchived 5 June 2011 at theWayback Machine ofRory McTurk,Studies in "Ragnars saga loðbrókar" and Its Major Scandinavian Analogues],Alvíssmál 2: 118–19.
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