The north portal of the 12th-centuryUrnes stave church has been interpreted as containing depictions of snakes and dragons that representRagnarök.[1]
InNorse mythology,Ragnarök (alsoRagnarok;/ˈræɡnərɒk/ⓘRAG-nə-rok or/ˈrɑːɡ-/RAHG-;[2][3][4]Old Norse:Ragnarǫk[ˈrɑɣnɑˌrɒk]) is a foretold series of impending events, including a great battle in which numerous great Norse mythological figures will perish (including thegodsOdin,Thor,Týr,Freyr,Heimdall, andLoki);[5] it will entail a catastrophic series of natural disasters, including the burning of the world, and culminate in the submersion of the world underwater. After these events, the world will rise again, cleansed and fertile, the surviving and returning gods will meet, and the world will be repopulated by two human survivors,Líf and Lífþrasir.Ragnarök is an important event in Norse mythology and has been the subject of scholarly discourse and theory in the history ofGermanic studies.
The event is attested primarily in thePoetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and theProse Edda, written in the 13th century bySnorri Sturluson. In theProse Edda and in a single poem in thePoetic Edda, the event is referred to asRagnarøkkr (Old Norse for 'Twilight of the Gods'), a usage popularised by 19th-century composerRichard Wagner with the title of the last of hisDer Ring des Nibelungen operas,Götterdämmerung (1876), which is "Twilight of the Gods" in German.
TheOld Norse compound wordragnarok has a long history of interpretation. Its first element is clear:ragna, thegenitive plural ofregin (n. pl.) 'the ruling powers, gods.' The second element is more problematic, as it occurs in two variants,-rök and-røkkr. Writing in the early 20th century,philologistGeir T. Zoëga treats the two forms as two separate compounds, glossingragnarök as 'the doom or destruction of the gods' andragnarøkkr as 'the twilight of the gods.'[6] The plural nounrök has several meanings, including 'development', 'origin', 'cause', 'relation', 'fate.'[7] The wordragnarök as a whole is then usually interpreted as the 'final destiny of the gods.'[8]
The singular formragnarøk(k)r is found in a stanza of thePoetic Edda poemLokasenna, and in theProse Edda. The nounrøk(k)r means 'twilight' (from the verbrøkkva 'to grow dark'), suggesting a translation 'twilight of the gods.' This reading was widely considered a result offolk etymology, or a learned reinterpretation of the original term due to the merger of/ɔ/ (spelled ǫ) and/ø/ (spelled ø) in Old Icelandic afterc. 1200[9](nevertheless giving rise to thecalqueGötterdämmerung 'Twilight of the Gods' in the German reception of Norse mythology[10]).
Other terms used to refer to the events surroundingRagnarök in thePoetic Edda includealdar rök (aldar means age, 'end of an age') from a stanza ofVafþrúðnismál,tíva rök from two stanzas ofVafþrúðnismál,þá er regin deyja ('when the gods die') fromVafþrúðnismál,unz um rjúfask regin ('when the gods will be destroyed') fromVafþrúðnismál,Lokasenna, andSigrdrífumál,aldar rof ('destruction of the age') fromHelgakviða Hundingsbana II,regin þrjóta ('end of the gods') fromHyndluljóð, and, in theProse Edda,þá er Muspellz-synir herja ('when the sons ofMuspell move into battle') can be found in chapters 18 and 36 ofGylfaginning.[8]
In thePoetic Edda poemVöluspá, references toRagnarök begin from stanza 40 until 58, with the rest of the poem describing the aftermath. In the poem, avölva (a female seer) recites information toOdin. In stanza 41, thevölva says:
Fylliz fiǫrvi feigra manna, rýðr ragna siǫt rauðom dreyra. Svǫrt verða sólskin of sumor eptir, veðr ǫll válynd. Vitoð ér enn, eða hvat?
It sates itself on the life-blood of fated men, paints red the powers' homes with crimson gore. Black become the sun's beams in the summers that follow, weathers all treacherous. Do you still seek to know? And what?
Thevölva then describes threeroosters crowing: In stanza 42, thejötunnherdsmanEggthér sits on amound and cheerfully plays hisharp while the crimson rooster Fjalar (Old Norse "hider, deceiver"[12]) crows in the forestGálgviðr. The golden roosterGullinkambi crows to theÆsir inValhalla, and the third, unnamed soot-red rooster crows in the halls of the underworld location ofHel in stanza 43.[13]
After these stanzas, thevölva further relates that the houndGarmr produces deep howls in front of the cave ofGnipahellir. Garmr's bindings break and he runs free. Thevölva describes the state of humanity:
Brœðr muno beriaz ok at bǫnom verða[z] muno systrungar sifiom spilla. Hart er í heimi, hórdómr mikill —skeggǫld, skálmǫld —skildir ro klofnir— vindǫld, vargǫld— áðr verǫld steypiz. Mun engi maðr ǫðrom þyrma.
Brothers will fight and kill each other, sisters' children will defile kinship. It is harsh in the world, whoredom rife —an axe age, a sword age —shields are riven— a wind age, a wolf age— before the world goes headlong. No man will have mercy on another.
The "sons ofMím" are described as being "at play," though this reference is not further explained in surviving sources.[15] Heimdall raises theGjallarhorn into the air and blows deeply into it, and Odin converses with Mím's head. The world treeYggdrasil shudders and groans. ThejötunnHrym comes from the east, his shield before him. TheMidgard serpentJörmungandr furiously writhes, causing waves to crash. "Theeagle shrieks, pale-beaked he tears the corpse," and the shipNaglfar breaks free thanks to the waves made by Jörmungandr and sets sail from the east. The firejötnar inhabitants ofMuspelheim come forth.[16]
Thevölva continues thatJötunheimr, the land of thejötnar, is aroar, and that the Æsir are in council. Thedwarfs groan by their stone doors.[14]Surtr advances from the south, his sword brighter than the sun. Rocky cliffs open and thejötnar women sink.[17]
The gods then do battle with the invaders:Odin is swallowed whole and alive fighting the wolfFenrir, causing his wifeFrigg her second great sorrow (the first being the death of her son, the godBaldr).[18] Odin's sonVíðarr avenges his father by rending Fenrir's jaws apart and stabbing it in the heart with his spear, thus killing the wolf. The serpentJörmungandr opens its gaping maw, yawning widely in the air, and is met in combat byThor. Thor, also a son of Odin and described here as protector of the earth, furiously fights the serpent, defeating it, but Thor is only able to take nine steps afterwards before collapsing dead from the Serpent's venom. The godFreyr fightsSurtr and loses. After this, people flee their homes, and the sun becomes black while the earth sinks into the sea, the stars vanish, steam rises, and flames touch the heavens.[19]
Thevölva sees the earth reappearing from the water and an eagle over a waterfall hunting fish on a mountain. The surviving Æsir meet together at the field ofIðavöllr. They discuss Jörmungandr, great events of the past, and therunic alphabet. In stanza 61, in the grass, they find the golden game pieces that the gods are described as having once happily enjoyed playing games with long ago (attested earlier in the same poem). The reemerged fields grow without needing to be sown. The godsHöðr andBaldr return from Hel and live happily together.[20]
Thevölva says that the godHœnir chooses wooden slips for divination and that the sons of two brothers will widely inhabit the windy world. She sees a hall thatched with gold inGimlé, where nobility will live and spend their lives pleasurably.[20] Stanzas 65, found in theHauksbók version of the poem, refers to a "powerful, mighty one" that "rules over everything" and who will arrive from above at the court of the gods (Old Norseregindómr),[21] which has been interpreted as aChristian addition to the poem.[22] In stanza 66, thevölva ends her account with a description of the dragonNíðhöggr, corpses in his jaws, flying through the air. Thevölva then "sinks down."[23] It is unclear if stanza 66 indicates that thevölva is referring to the present time or if this is an element of the post-Ragnarök world.[24]
TheVanir godNjörðr is mentioned in relation toRagnarök in stanza 39 of the poemVafþrúðnismál. In the poem, Odin, disguised asGagnráðr, faces off with the wisejötunnVafþrúðnir in a battle of wits. Vafþrúðnismál references Njörðr's status as a hostage during the earlierÆsir–Vanir War, and that he will "come back home among the wise Vanir" at "the doom of men."[25]
In stanza 44, Odin poses the question to Vafþrúðnir as to who of mankind will survive the "famous"Fimbulwinter ("Mighty Winter"[26]). Vafþrúðnir responds in stanza 45 that those survivors will beLíf and Lífþrasir and that they will hide in the forest ofHoddmímis holt, that they will consume the morning dew, and will produce generations of offspring. In stanza 46, Odin asks what sun will come into the sky after Fenrir has consumed the sun that exists. Vafþrúðnir responds thatSól will bear a daughter before Fenrir assails her and that afterRagnarök this daughter will continue her mother's path.[27]
In stanza 51, Vafþrúðnir states that, after Surtr's flames have been sated, Odin's sonsVíðarr andVáli will live in the temples of the gods, and that Thor's sonsMóði and Magni will possess the hammer Mjolnir. In stanza 52, the disguised Odin asks thejötunn about his fate. Vafþrúðnir responds that "the wolf" will consume Odin, and that Víðarr will avenge him by sundering its cold jaws in battle. Odin ends the duel with one final question: what did Odin say tohis son before preparing his funeral pyre? With this, Vafþrúðnir realizes that he is dealing with none other than Odin, whom he refers to as "the wisest of beings," adding that Odin alone could know this.[28] Odin's message has been interpreted as a promise of resurrection to Baldr afterRagnarök.[29]
Ragnarök is briefly referenced in stanza 40 of the poemHelgakviða Hundingsbana II. Here, thevalkyrieSigrún's unnamed maid is passing the deceased heroHelgi Hundingsbane'sburial mound. Helgi is there with a retinue of men, surprising the maid. The maid asks if she is witnessing a delusion since she sees dead men riding, or ifRagnarök has occurred. In stanza 41, Helgi responds that it is neither.[30]
Snorri Sturluson'sProse Edda quotes heavily fromVöluspá and elaborates extensively in prose on the information there, though some of this information conflicts with that provided inVöluspá.
Loki breaks free at the onset ofRagnarök (by Ernst H. Walther, 1897)
In theProse Edda bookGylfaginning, various references are made toRagnarök.Ragnarök is first mentioned in chapter 26, where the throned figure ofHigh, king of the hall, tellsGangleri (KingGylfi in disguise) some basic information about the goddessIðunn, including that her apples will keep the gods young untilRagnarök.[31]
In chapter 34, High describes the binding of the wolf Fenrir by the gods, causing the godTýr to lose his right hand, and that Fenrir remains there untilRagnarök. Gangleri asks High why, since the gods could only expect destruction from Fenrir, they did not simply kill Fenrir once he was bound. High responds that "the gods hold their sacred places and sanctuaries in such respect that they chose not to defile them with the wolf's blood, even though the prophecies foretold that he would be the death of Odin."[32]
As a consequence of his role in the death of the god Baldr, Loki (described as father of Fenrir) is bound on top of three stones with the internal organs of his sonNarfi (which are turned into iron) in three places. There,venom drops onto his face periodically from a snake placed by thejötunnSkaði. Loki's wifeSigyn collects the venom into a bucket, but whenever she leaves to empty it, the drops reach Loki's face, and the pain he experiences causes convulsions, resulting inearthquakes. Loki is further described as being bound this way until the onset ofRagnarök.[33]
A scene from the last phase ofRagnarök, after Surtr has engulfed the world with fire (by Emil Doepler, 1905)
Chapter 51 provides a detailed account ofRagnarök interspersed with various quotes fromVöluspá, while chapters 52 and 53 describe the aftermath of these events. In Chapter 51, High states that the first sign ofRagnarök will beFimbulwinter, during which time three winters will arrive without a summer, and the sun will be useless. High details that, before these winters, three earlier winters will have occurred, marked with great battles throughout the world. During this time, greed will cause brothers to kill brothers, and fathers and sons will suffer from the collapse of kinship bonds. High then quotes stanza 45 ofVöluspá. Next, High describes thatthe wolf will swallow the sun, thenhis brother will swallow the moon, and mankind will consider the occurrence as a great disaster resulting in much ruin. The stars will disappear. The earth and mountains will shake so violently that the trees will come loose from the soil, the mountains will topple, and all restraints will break, causing Fenrir to break free from his bonds.[34]
High relates that the great serpentJörmungandr, also described as a child of Loki in the same source, will breach land as the sea violently swells onto it. The ship Naglfar, described in theProse Edda as being made from thehuman nails of the dead, is released from itsmooring and sets sail on the surging sea, steered by ajötunn namedHrym. At the same time, Fenrir, eyes and nostrils spraying flames, charges forward with his mouth wide open, his upper jaw reaching to the heavens, and his lower jaw touching the earth. At Fenrir's side, Jörmungandr sprays venom throughout the air and the sea.[35]
During all of this, the sky splits into two. From the split, the "sons ofMuspell" ride forth.Surtr rides first, surrounded by flames, his sword brighter than the sun. High says that "Muspell's sons" will ride acrossBifröst, described inGylfaginning as a rainbow bridge, and that the bridge will then break. The sons of Muspell (and their shining battle troop) advance to the field ofVígríðr, described as an expanse that reaches "a hundred leagues in each direction," where Fenrir, Jörmungandr, Loki (followed by "Hel's own"), and Hrym (accompanied by all frostjötnar) join them. While this occurs, Heimdallr stands and blows theGjallarhorn with all his might. The gods awaken at the sound, and they meet. Odin rides toMímisbrunnr in search of counsel from Mímir. Yggdrasil shakes, and everything, everywhere fears.[35]
High relates that the Æsir and theEinherjar dress for war and head to the field. Odin, wearing a gold helmet and an intricatecoat of mail, carries his spearGungnir and rides before them. Odin advances against Fenrir, while Thor moves at his side, though Thor is unable to assist Odin because he has engaged Jörmungandr in combat. According to High,Freyr fights fiercely with Surtr, but falls because he lacks the sword he once gave to his messenger,Skírnir. The houndGarmr (described here as the "worst of monsters") breaks free from his bonds in front ofGnipahellir, and fights the god Týr, resulting in both of their deaths.[36]
Thor kills Jörmungandr but is poisoned by the serpent, and manages to walk only nine steps before falling to the earth dead. Fenrir swallows Odin, though immediately afterwards his sonVíðarr kicks his foot into Fenrir's lower jaw, grips the upper jaw, and rips apart Fenrir's mouth, killing the great wolf. Loki fights Heimdallr and the two kill each other. Surtr covers the earth in fire, causing the entire world to burn. High quotes stanzas 46 to 47 ofVöluspá, and additionally stanza 18 ofVafþrúðnismál (the latter relating information about the battlefield Vígríðr).[37]
At the beginning of chapter 52, Gangleri asks "what will be after heaven and earth and the whole world are burned? All the gods will be dead, together with the Einherjar and the whole of mankind. Didn't you say earlier that each person will live in some world throughout all ages?"[38]
The figure of Third, seated on the highest throne in the hall, responds that there will be many good places to live, but also many bad ones. Third states that the best place to be isGimlé in the heavens, where a place exists calledOkolnir that houses a hall calledBrimir—where one can find plenty to drink. Third describes a hall made ofred gold located inNiðafjöll calledSindri, where "good and virtuous men will live."[38] Third further relates an unnamed hall inNáströnd, the beaches of the dead, that he describes as a large repugnant hall facing north that is built from the spines of snakes, and resembles "a house with walls woven from branches"; the heads of the snakes face the inside of the house and spew so much venom that rivers of it flow throughout the hall, in which oath breakers and murderers must wade. Third here quotesVöluspá stanzas 38 to 39, with the insertion of original prose stating that the worst place of all to be is inHvergelmir, followed by a quote fromVöluspá to highlight that the dragon Níðhöggr harasses the corpses of the dead there.[39]
Chapter 53 begins with Gangleri asking if any of the gods will survive and if there will be anything left of the earth or the sky. High responds that the earth will appear once more from the sea, beautiful and green, where self-sown crops grow. The field Iðavöllr exists where Asgard once was, and, there, untouched by Surtr's flames, Víðarr andVáli reside. Now possessing their father's hammerMjölnir, Thor's sonsMóði and Magni will meet them there, and, coming fromHel, Baldr and Höðr also arrive. Together, they all sit and recount memories, later finding the gold game pieces the Æsir once owned.Völuspá stanza 51 is then quoted.[40]
High reveals that two humans,Líf and Lífþrasir, will have also survived the destruction by hiding in the woodHoddmímis holt. These two survivors consume the morning dew for sustenance, and from their descendants, the world will be repopulated.Vafþrúðnismál stanza 45 is then quoted. The personified sun, Sól, will have a daughter at least as beautiful as she, and this daughter will follow the same path as her mother.Vafþrúðnismál stanza 47 is quoted, and so ends the foretelling ofRagnarök inGylfaginning.[41]
The new world that rises afterRagnarök, as described inVöluspá (depiction byEmil Doepler, 1905)
A depiction of Líf and Lífthrasir (byLorenz Frølich, 1895)
Thorwald's Cross, a partially survivingrunestone erected at KirkAndreas on theIsle of Man, depicts a bearded human holding a spear downward at a wolf, his right foot in its mouth, while a large bird sits at his shoulder.[42]Rundata dates it to 940,[43] while Pluskowski dates it to the 11th century.[42] This depiction has been interpreted as Odin, with araven or eagle at his shoulder, being consumed by Fenrir atRagnarök.[42][44] On the other side of the stone is a depiction of a large cross and another image parallel to the Odin figure that has been described as Christ triumphing over Satan.[45] These combined elements have led to the cross as being described as "syncretic art," a mixture ofpagan and Christian beliefs.[42]
Gosforth Cross, Close up image focused on Víðarr fighting Fenrir
TheGosforth Cross (920–950), inCumbria, England, is a standing cross of a typical Anglo-Saxon form, carved on all sides of the long shaft, which is nearly square in section. Based on the mythological stories found in Old Norse texts written in Iceland in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it has been assumed that the figural carvings of the Gosforth Cross depict Norse mythological episodes connected to Ragnarök.[46] Apart from panels of ornament, the scenes include a Christiancrucifixion, and possibly another scene in Hell, but the other scenes are generally interpreted as narrative incidents from theRagnarök story,[47] even by a scholar as cautious of such interpretations asDavid M. Wilson.[42][48] TheRagnarök battle itself may be depicted on the north side.[49] The cross features various figures depicted inBorre style, including a man with a spear facing a monstrous head, with one foot thrust into the beast's forked tongue and on its lower jaw, and the other is against its upper jaw, a scene interpreted as Víðarr fighting Fenrir.[42]
A composite image of three different angles of the Ledberg stone
The 11th-centuryLedberg stone inSweden, similarly to Thorwald's Cross, is regarded as alluding to the final battle of Ragnarök through the stones images.[50] The stone features a figure with his foot at the mouth of a four-legged beast, and this may also be a depiction of Odin being devoured by Fenrir atRagnarök.[44] Below the beast and the man is a depiction of a legless, helmeted man, with his arms in a prostrate position.[44] TheYounger Futhark inscription on the stone bears a commonly seen memorial dedication, but is followed by an encodedrunic sequence that has been described as "mysterious,"[51] and "an interesting magic formula which is known from all over the ancient Norse world."[44]
On the early 11th-centurySkarpåker Stone, fromSödermanland, Sweden, a father grieving his dead son used the same verse form,fornyrðislag, as in thePoetic Edda in the following engraving:
Iarð skal rifna ok upphiminn
Translation:
Earth shall be riven and the over-heaven.
Jansson (1987) notes that at the time of the inscription, everyone who read the lines would have thought ofRagnarök and the allusion that the father found fitting as an expression of his grief.[52] The inscription on the stone depicts a time of religious transition in Viking Age Scandinavia by fusing Christian and Norse components.[50] The presence of a Christian cross on the stone indicates an attempt to combine Norse prophetic themes with Christian concepts of resurrection and endless life.[50] The ship on the stone, with its mast shaped like a cross, is believed to represent the trip to the afterlife, fusing Christian imagery with Viking Age culture.[50]
Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir at the end ofRagnarök is "a case of reduplication of theanthropogeny, understandable from thecyclic nature of theEddiceschatology." Simek says that Hoddmímis holt "should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden, but rather as an alternative name for the world-treeYggdrasill. Thus, the creation of mankind from tree trunks (Askr, Embla) is repeated after theRagnarök as well." Simek says that inGermanic regions, the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient, and additionally points out legendary parallels in aBavarian legend of ashepherd who lives inside a tree, whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague (citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder). In addition, Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure ofÖrvar-Oddr, "who is rejuvenated after living as a tree-man (Ǫrvar-Odds saga 24–27)."[53]
Theories have been proposed about the relation betweenRagnarök and the 9th-centuryOld High Germanepic poemMuspilli about the ChristianLast Judgment, where the wordMuspille appears, and the 9th-centuryOld Saxon epic poemHeliand about the life ofChrist, where various other forms of the word appear. In both sources, the word is used to signify the end of the world through fire.[54] The Christian thought of the Last Judgment as it is presented in theBook of Revelation is similar to the apocalyptic story of Ragnarök, which features imagery of a final cosmic conflict, devastation, and eventual renewal.[55] Key elements, such as the role of a savior figure and the contrast between divine forces and evil, may mirror Christian theological concepts brought during the conversion of Scandinavia.[55] Old Norse forms of the term also appear throughout accounts ofRagnarök, where the world is also consumed in flames, and, though various theories exist about the meaning and origins of the term, its etymology has not been solved.[54]
Parallels have been pointed out between theRagnarök ofNorse religion and the beliefs of other relatedIndo-European peoples. Subsequently, theories have been put forth thatRagnarök represents a later evolution of aProto-Indo-European belief along with other cultures descending from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. These parallels include comparisons of a cosmic winter motif between the NorseFimbulwinter, theIranianBundahishn andYima.[56] Víðarr's stride has been compared to theVedic godVishnu in that both have a "cosmic stride" with a special shoe used to tear apart a beastly wolf.[56] Larger patterns have also been drawn between "final battle" events in Indo-European cultures, including the occurrence of a blind or semi-blind figure in "final battle" themes, and figures appearing suddenly with surprising skills.[56]
Similar Indo-European mythological elements are highlighted by comparisons between Ragnarök and Iranian prophetic traditions. The wolves' destruction of the sun and moon in Völuspá is consistent with Iranian customs about theFravashi, divine guardians who intervene against demonic powers to guarantee the sun and moon's paths.[50] Iranian traditions depict this conflict as a part of the world's continuous war between good and evil, whereas Scandinavian mythology depicts the cosmic catastrophe as taking place at the end of time. These parallels highlight a common cosmological concern for upholding order in the face of chaotic forces.[50] Ragnarök epitomizes the Old Norse warrior culture, in which bravery and resistance are used to face death's inevitable course. Gods such as Odin and Thor represent the ideal warrior archetypes, and the tale reflects a deeply ingrained cultural ideal of heroic tenacity.[57] This philosophy supported a worldview in which destruction is not an end but a necessary prerequisite for rebirth. Iranian traditions share similarities with Ragnarök's warrior ethos. Warriors are portrayed in both mythologies as seeking for a spot in paradise, which is known as Valhalla in Norse mythology.[50] This shared ideal reinforces the relationship between apocalyptic myths and societal ideals in Indo-European traditions by reflecting a cultural emphasis on the afterlife as a compensation for bravery and devotion in combat.[50]
Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that the events inVöluspá occurring after the death of the gods (the sun turning black, steam rising, flames touching the heavens, etc.) may be inspired by the volcanic eruptions on Iceland. Records of eruptions in Iceland bear strong similarities to the sequence of events described inVöluspá, especially the eruption atLaki that occurred in 1783.[58]Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions and that he was a volcano demon.[59] Surtr's name occurs in some Icelandic place names, among them thelava tubeSurtshellir, a number of dark caverns in the volcanic central region of Iceland.[60] This viewpoint is expanded by recent research byMathias Nordvig and Felix Riede, which connects the apocalyptic themes ofRagnarök to important geological and climatic occurrences in the sixth century AD. Massive volcanic eruptions created a "dust veil" at this time, which produced broad climatic changes throughout the Northern Hemisphere, including as longer periods of darkness and colder temperatures.[61] Known as one of the most intense volcanic winters in history, the years 536–550 AD brought about significant environmental changes in Scandinavia and shifts in settlement patterns during this time of climate disturbance, indicating a social reaction to these environmental issues.[61]
Parallels have been pointed out between a poem spoken by ajötunn found in the 13th-centuryþáttrBergbúa þáttr ("the tale of the mountain dweller"). In the tale, Thórd and his servant get lost while travelling to church in winter, and so take shelter for the night within a cave. Inside the cave they hear noises, witness a pair of immense burning eyes, and then the being with burning eyes recites a poem of 12 stanzas. The poem the being recites contains references to Norse mythology (including a mention of Thor) and also prophecies (including that "mountains will tumble, the earth will move, men will be scoured by hot water and burned by fire"). Surtr's fire receives a mention in stanza 10.John Lindow says that the poem may describe "a mix of the destruction of the race of giants and of humans, as inRagnarök" but that "many of the predictions of disruption on earth could also fit the volcanic activity that is so common in Iceland."[62]
The events ofRagnarok are dramatized, albeit briefly, in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale "The Marsh King's Daughter".
In late 2013 and early 2014, English-language media outlets widely reported thatRagnarök was foretold to occur on 22 February 2014.[63] Apparently patterned after the2012 phenomenon, the claim was at times attributed to a "Viking Calendar". No such calendar is known to have existed, and the source was a "prediction" made to media outlets by theJorvik Viking Centre inYork, England, intended to draw attention to an event that the institution was to hold on that date. The Jorvik Viking Centre was criticized for misleading the public to promote the event. In a 2014 article on the claims, philologist Joseph S. Hopkins perceives the media response as an example of a broad revival of interest in the Viking Age and ancient Germanic topics.[64]
The Norwegian fantasy adventure filmGåten Ragnarok was released in 2013 and centres on the discovery of the mythical serpent in contemporaryFinnmark.
A. S. Byatt published a novel entitledRagnarok: The End of the Gods in 2011.
Ragnarök is set up at the end of the 2018 video gameGod of War, which is rooted inNorse mythology, after the protagonistKratos killsBaldr. The 2022 sequel,God of War Ragnarök, deals with the aftermath of this event and covers the in-game version ofRagnarök.
Norse mythology and climate change inspired the eponymous TV seriesRagnarok.[66] The town of Edda in Western Norway is plagued by climate change and industrial pollution caused by the factories owned by the Jutul family, a group ofjötunn. They are challenged by a teenage boy, Magne, the reincarnation of Thor. Thus begins the event Ragnarok ("twilight of the gods"), the fight against those who are destroying the planet.
In the 2020 video gameAssassin's Creed Valhalla, which is partially inspired by Norse mythology, the Æsir are depicted as members of the Isu, who within the series' fictional lore, are an advanced civilization that predate humanity, andRagnarök refers to a series of events revolving around theToba Catastrophe, or the "Great Catastrophe", which was asolar flare that hit the Earth, killing most of the Isu. In one of the game's story arcs, the protagonist Eivor Varinsdottir assumes the role ofOdin (later revealed to be herprevious life), who searches for a way for himself and the other Æsir to survive beyondRagnarök, during which they are all foretold to perish. One of the game'sdownloadable content packs, titledDawn of Ragnarök, builds upon this, as it follows Odin just as the events of Ragnarök are about to begin.
^"reason, ground, origin," "wonder, marvel,"tíva rök 'the life and doings of the gods,'þjóða rök 'origin, creation of mankind,'í aldar rök 'at the end of the world' (Zoëga 2004, p. 345);Proto-Germanic: *rakō (Bjordvand & Lindeman 2007, pp. 856–857).
Bailey, Richard N. (2002). "Scandinavian Myth on Viking-period Stone Sculpture in England". In Barnes, Geraldine; Ross, Margaret Clunies (eds.).Old Norse Myths, Literature, and Society(PDF). Sydney: University of Sydney.ISBN1-86487-316-7. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 14 September 2009. Retrieved3 October 2010.
Bernharðsson, Haraldur (2007). "Old IcelandicRagnarök andRagnarökkr". In Nussbaum, Alan J. (ed.).Verba Docenti. Beech Stave Press. pp. 25–38.ISBN978-0-9747927-3-6.
Peterson, Lena; Elmevik, Lennart; Williams, Henrik, eds. (18 September 2004).Scandinavian Runic-text Database (2004 ed.). Department of Scandinavian Languages, Uppsala University.
