Rabbits orbunnies are smallmammals in thefamilyLeporidae (which also includes thehares), which is in theorderLagomorpha (which also includespikas). They are familiar throughout the world as a small herbivore, a prey animal, a domesticated form of livestock, and a pet, having a widespread effect onecologies and cultures. The most widespread rabbitgenera areOryctolagus andSylvilagus. The former,Oryctolagus, includes theEuropean rabbit,Oryctolagus cuniculus, which is the ancestor of the hundreds ofbreeds ofdomestic rabbit and has been introduced on every continent exceptAntarctica. The latter,Sylvilagus, includes over 13 wild rabbit species, among them thecottontails andtapetis. Wild rabbits not included inOryctolagus andSylvilagus include several species of limiteddistribution, including thepygmy rabbit,volcano rabbit, andSumatran striped rabbit.
Rabbits are aparaphyletic grouping, and do not constitute aclade, as hares (belonging to thegenusLepus) are nested within the Leporidae clade and are not described as rabbits. Although once consideredrodents, lagomorphs diverged earlier and have a number of traits rodents lack, including two extraincisors. Similarities between rabbits and rodents were once attributed toconvergent evolution, but studies inmolecular biology have found acommon ancestor between lagomorphs and rodents and place them in the cladeGlires.
Rabbitphysiology is suited to escaping predators and surviving in varioushabitats, living either alone or in groups in nests or burrows. As prey animals, rabbits are constantly aware of their surroundings, having a wide field of vision and ears with high surface area to detect potential predators. The ears of a rabbit are essential forthermoregulation and contain a high density ofblood vessels. The bone structure of a rabbit's hind legs, which is longer than that of the fore legs, allows for quick hopping, which is beneficial for escaping predators and can provide powerful kicks if captured. Rabbits are typicallynocturnal and often sleep with their eyes open. They reproduce quickly, having shortpregnancies, largelitters of four to twelve kits, and no particularmating season; however, the mortality rate of rabbit embryos is high, and there exist several widespread diseases that affect rabbits, such asrabbit hemorrhagic disease andmyxomatosis. In some regions, especiallyAustralia, rabbits have caused ecological problems and are regarded as a pest.
Humans have used rabbits as livestock since at least the first century BC inancient Rome, raising them for their meat, fur and wool. The various breeds of the European rabbit have been developed to suit each of these products; the practice of raising and breeding rabbits as livestock is known ascuniculture. Rabbits are seen in human culture globally, appearing as asymbol of fertility, cunning, and innocence inmajor religions, historical and contemporary art.
Terminology and etymology
The word rabbit derives from theMiddle Englishrabet ("young of the coney"), a borrowing from theWalloonrobète, which was a diminutive of the French orMiddle Dutchrobbe ("rabbit"), a term of unknown origin.[1] The termconey is a term for an adult rabbit used until the 18th century;rabbit once referred only to the young animals.[2] More recently, the termkit orkitten has been used to refer to a young rabbit.[3][4] The endearing wordbunny is attested by the 1680s as a diminutive ofbun, a term used in Scotland to refer to rabbits andsquirrels.[5]
Coney is derived fromcuniculus,[2] aLatin term referring to rabbits which has been in use from at least the first century BC inHispania. The wordcuniculus may originate from a diminutive form of the word for "dog" in theCeltic languages.[6]
A group of rabbits is known as acolony,[7]nest, orwarren,[8] though the latter term more commonly refers to where the rabbits live.[9] A group of baby rabbits produced from a single mating is referred to as alitter[10] and a group of domestic rabbits living together is sometimes called aherd.[8]
A male rabbit is called abuck, as are malegoats anddeer, derived from theOld Englishbucca orbucc, meaning "he-goat" or "male deer", respectively.[11] A female is called adoe, derived from the Old Englishdā, related todēon ("to suck").[12]
Rabbits and hares were formerly classified in the orderRodentia (rodents) until 1912, when they were moved into the orderLagomorpha (which also includespikas). Since 1945, there has been support for the cladeGlires that includes both rodents and lagomorphs,[13] though the two groups have always been closely associated in taxonomy; fossil,[14]DNA,[15] andretrotransposon[16] studies in the 2000s have solidified support for the clade. Studies inpaleontology andmolecular biology suggest that rodents and lagomorphsdiverged at the start of theTertiary.[17]
The extant species of family Leporidae, of which there are more than 70, are contained within 11genera, one of which isLepus, the hares. There are 32 extant species withinLepus. The cladogram is from Matthee et al., 2004, based on nuclear and mitochondrial gene analysis.[18]
The termrabbit is typically used for all Leporidae species, excluding the genusLepus. Members of that genus are known ashares[20] orjackrabbits.[21]
Lepus species areprecocial, born relatively mature and mobile with hair and good vision out in the open air, while rabbit species arealtricial, born hairless and blind in burrows and buried nests.[22] Hares are also generally larger than rabbits, and have longerpregnancies.[20] Hares and some rabbits live relatively solitary lives above the ground in open grassy areas,[23] interacting mainly during breeding season.[24][25] Some rabbit species group together to reduce their chance of being preyed upon,[26] and the European rabbit will form large social groups inburrows,[27] which are grouped together to formwarrens.[28][29] Burrowing by hares varies by location, and is more prominent in younger members of the genus;[24] many rabbit species that do not dig their own burrows will use the burrows of other animals.[30][31]
Rabbits and hares have historically not occupied the same locations, and only becamesympatric relatively recently; historic accounts describe antagonistic relationships between rabbits and hares, specifically between theEuropean hare andEuropean orcottontail rabbits, but scientific literature since 1956 has found no evidence of aggression or undue competition between rabbits and hares. When they appear in the same habitat, rabbits and hares can co-exist on similar diets.[32] Hares will notably force other hare species out of an area to control resources, but are not territorial.[33] When faced with predators, hares will escape by outrunning them, whereas rabbits, being smaller and less able to reach the high speeds of longer-legged hares, will try to seek cover.[26]
Descendants of theEuropean rabbit are commonly bred as livestock and kept as pets, whereas no hares have beendomesticated, though populations have been introduced to non-native habitats for use as a food source.[23] The breed known as theBelgian hare is actually adomestic rabbit which has been selectively bred to resemble a hare,[34] most likely fromFlemish Giant stock originally.[35] Common names of hare and rabbit species may also be confused; "jackrabbits" refer to hares, and thehispid hare is a rabbit.[36]
Rabbits, specifically the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) species, have long been domesticated. The European rabbit has been widely kept as livestock, starting inancient Rome from at least the first century BC.Selective breeding, which began in the Middle Ages, has generated awide variety of rabbit breeds, of which many (since the early 19th century) are also kept as pets.[37] Somestrains of European rabbit have been bred specifically asresearch subjects, such as theNew Zealand white.[38]
As livestock, European rabbits are bred for their meat andfur. The earliest breeds were important sources of meat,[39][40] and so were bred to be larger than wild rabbits at younger ages,[41] but domestic rabbits in modern times range in size fromdwarf togiant.[42][43] Rabbit fur, produced as a byproduct of meat production but occasionally selected for as in the case of theRex rabbit,[44] can be found in a broad range ofcoat colors and patterns, some of which are produced viadyeing.[45] Some breeds are raised for their wool, such as theAngora rabbit breeds;[46] their fur is sheared, combed orplucked, and the fibers are spun intoyarn.[47]
Biology
Wax models showing the development of the rabbit heart
Evolution
The earliest ancestor of rabbits and hares lived 55 million years ago in what is nowMongolia.[48] Because the rabbit'sepiglottis is engaged over the soft palate except when swallowing, the rabbit is anobligate nasal breather.[49] As lagomorphs, rabbits have two sets ofincisor teeth, one behind the other, a manner in which they differ from rodents, which only have one set of incisors.[20] Another difference is that for rabbits, all of their teeth continue to grow, whereas for most rodents, only their incisors continue to grow.Carl Linnaeus originally grouped rabbits and rodents under the classGlires; later, they were separated as the scientific consensus is that many of their similarities were a result ofconvergent evolution. DNA analysis and the discovery of a common ancestor have supported the view that they share a common lineage, so rabbits and rodents are now often grouped together in the clade or superorder Glires.[50][16]
Morphology
Skeleton of the rabbit
Since speed and agility are a rabbit's main defenses against predators, rabbits have large hind leg bones and well-developed musculature. Thoughplantigrade at rest, rabbits are on their toes while running, assuming a moredigitigrade posture.[51] Rabbits use their strong claws for digging and (along with their teeth) for defense.[52] Each front foot has four toes plus adewclaw. Each hind foot has four toes (but no dewclaw).[53]
Most wild rabbits (especiallycompared to hares) have relatively full, egg-shaped bodies. The soft coat of the wild rabbit isagouti in coloration (or, rarely,melanistic), which aids incamouflage. The tail of the rabbit (with the exception of thecottontail species) is dark on top and white below. Cottontails have white on the top of their tails.[54]
As a result of the position of the eyes in its skull and the size of the cornea, the rabbit has a panoramic field of vision that encompasses nearly 360 degrees.[55] However, there is a blind spot at the bridge of the nose, and because of this, rabbits cannot see what is below their mouth and rely on their lips andwhiskers to determine what they are eating. Blinking occurs 2 to 4 times an hour.[50]
Hind limb elements
A specimen of the skeletal articulations of rabbit's hind limbs in thePacific Lutheran University natural history collection
The anatomy of rabbits' hind limbs is structurally similar to that of other land mammals and contributes to their specialized form of locomotion. The bones of the hind limbs consist of long bones (thefemur,tibia,fibula, andphalanges) as well as short bones (thetarsals). These bones are created throughendochondral ossification during fetal development. Like most land mammals, the round head of the femurarticulates with theacetabulum of theos coxae, the hip bone. The femur articulates with the tibia, but not the fibula, which is fused to the tibia. The tibia and fibula articulate with the tarsals of thepes, commonly called the foot. The hind limbs of the rabbit are longer than the front limbs. This allows them to produce their hopping form of locomotion. Longer hind limbs are more capable of producing faster speeds. Hares, which have longer legs thancottontail rabbits, are able to move considerably faster.[56] The hind feet have four long toes that allow for digitigrade movement, which are webbed to prevent them from spreading when hopping.[57] Rabbits do not have paw pads on their feet like most other animals that use digitigrade locomotion. Instead, they have coarse compressed hair that offers protection.[58]
Musculature
The rabbit's hind limb (lateral view) includes muscles involved in the quadriceps and hamstrings.
Rabbits have muscled hind legs that allow for maximum force, maneuverability, and acceleration that is divided into three main parts: foot, thigh, and leg. The hind limbs of a rabbit are an exaggerated feature. They are much longer and can provide more force than the forelimbs,[59] which are structured like brakes to take the brunt of the landing after a leap.[60] The force put out by the hind limbs is contributed by both the structural anatomy of the fusion of the tibia and fibula, and by the muscular features.[59]
Bone formation and removal, from a cellular standpoint, is directly correlated to hind limb muscles. Action pressure from muscles creates force that is then distributed through the skeletal structures. Rabbits that generate less force, putting less stress on bones are more prone to osteoporosis due to bonerarefaction.[61] In rabbits, the more fibers in a muscle, the more resistant to fatigue. For example,hares have a greater resistance to fatigue thancottontails. The muscles of rabbit's hind limbs can be classified into four main categories:hamstrings,quadriceps,dorsiflexors, orplantar flexors. The quadriceps muscles are in charge of force production when jumping. Complementing these muscles are the hamstrings, which aid in short bursts of action. These muscles play off of one another in the same way as the plantar flexors and dorsiflexors, contributing to the generation and actions associated with force.[62]
Ears
Anatomy of mammalian ear
Within the order oflagomorphs, the ears are used to detect and avoid predators.[63] In the familyLeporidae, the ears are typically longer than they are wide, and are in general relatively long compared to other mammals.[25][64]
According toAllen's rule,endothermic animals adapted to colder climates have shorter, thicker limbs and appendages than those of similar animals adapted to warm climates. The rule was originally derived by comparing the ear lengths ofLepus species across the various climates of North America.[65] Subsequent studies show that this rule remains true in the Leporidae for the ears specifically,[66] in that the surface area of rabbits' and hares' ears are enlarged in warm climates;[67] the ears are an important structure to aidthermoregulation[68] as well as in detecting predators due to the way the outer, middle, and inner ear muscles coordinate with one another. The ear muscles also aid in maintaining balance and movement when fleeing predators.[69]
Theauricle, also known as the pinna, is a rabbit's outer ear.[70] The rabbit's pinnae represent a fair part of the body surface area. It is theorized that the ears aid in dispersion of heat at temperatures above 30 °C (86 °F), with rabbits in warmer climates having longer pinnae due to this. Another theory is that the ears function as shock absorbers that could aid and stabilize rabbits' vision when fleeing predators, but this has typically only been seen in hares.[50] The rest of the outer ear has bent canals that lead to theeardrum ortympanic membrane.[71]
The middle ear, separated by the outer eardrum in the back of the rabbit's skull, contains three bones: the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, collectively calledossicles, which act to decrease sound before it hits the inner ear; in general, the ossicles act as a barrier to the inner ear for sound energy.[71]
Inner ear fluid, calledendolymph, receives the sound energy. After receiving the energy. The inner ear comprises two parts: thecochlea that uses sound waves from the ossicles, and thevestibular apparatus that manages the rabbit's position in regard to movement. Within the cochlea abasilar membrane contains sensory hair structures that send nerve signals to the brain, allowing it to recognize different sound frequencies. Within the vestibular apparatus three semicircular canals help detectangular motion.[71]
Thermoregulation
The blood flow through the rabbit's ears help with thermoregulation, as seen in thisdesert cottontail.[72]
The pinnae, which contain a vascular network and arteriovenous shunts, aid in thermoregulation.[50] In a rabbit, the optimal body temperature is around 38.5–40.0 °C (101.3–104.0 °F).[73] If their body temperature exceeds or does not meet this optimal temperature, the rabbit must make efforts to return tohomeostasis. Homeostasis of body temperature is maintained by changing the amount of blood flow that passes through the highly vascularized ears,[68][74] as rabbits have few to nosweat glands.[75] Rabbits may also regulate their temperature by resting in depressions in the ground, known as forms.[76]
Respiratory system
Ventral view of dissected rabbit lungs with key structures labeled
The rabbit's nasal cavity lies dorsal to the oral cavity, and the two compartments are separated by the hard and soft palate.[77] The nasal cavity itself is separated into a left and right side by a cartilage barrier, and it is covered in fine hairs that trap dust before it can enter therespiratory tract.[77][78] As the rabbit breathes, air flows in through the nostrils along the alar folds. From there, the air moves into the nasal cavity, also known as thenasopharynx, down through the trachea, through thelarynx, and into the lungs.[79][80] The larynx functions as the rabbit's voice box, which enables it to produce a wide variety of sounds.[78] The trachea is a long tube embedded with cartilaginous rings that prevent the tube from collapsing as air moves in and out of the lungs. The trachea then splits into a left and right bronchus, which meet the lungs at a structure called thehilum. From there, the bronchi split into progressively more narrow and numerous branches. The bronchi branch into bronchioles, into respiratory bronchioles, and ultimately terminate at the alveolar ducts. The branching that is typically found in rabbit lungs is a clear example of monopodial branching, in which smaller branches divide out laterally from a larger central branch.[81]
The structure of the rabbit's nasal and oral cavities necessitates breathing through the nose. This is due to the fact that the epiglottis is fixed to the backmost portion of the soft palate.[80] Within the oral cavity, a layer of tissue sits over the opening of the glottis, which blocks airflow from the oral cavity to the trachea.[77] The epiglottis functions to prevent the rabbit from aspirating on its food. Further, the presence of a soft and hard palate allow the rabbit to breathe through its nose while it feeds.[79]
Monopodial branching as seen in dissected rabbit lungs
Rabbits' lungs are divided into four lobes: the cranial, middle, caudal, and accessory lobes. The right lung is made up of all four lobes, while the left lung only has two: the cranial and caudal lobes.[81] To provide space for the heart, the left cranial lobe of the lungs is significantly smaller than that of the right.[77] The diaphragm is a muscular structure that lies caudal to the lungs and contracts to facilitate respiration.[77][80]
Rabbits are strictherbivores[26][36] and are suited to a diet high in fiber, mostly in the form ofcellulose. They will typicallygraze grass upon waking up and emerging from a burrow, and will move on to consume vegetation and other plants throughout the waking period; rabbits have been known to eat a wide variety of plants, including tree leaves and fruits, though consumption of fruit and lower fiber foods is common for pet rabbits where natural vegetation is scarce.[82]
Easily digestible food is processed in thegastrointestinal tract and expelled as regular feces. To get nutrients out of hard to digest fiber, rabbits ferment fiber in the cecum (part of the gastrointestinal tract) and then expel the contents ascecotropes, which are reingested (cecotrophy or refection). The cecotropes are then absorbed in the small intestine to use the nutrients.[83] Soft cecotropes are usually consumed during periods of rest in underground burrows.[82]
Rabbits cannot vomit;[84] and therefore if buildup occurs within the intestines (due often to a diet with insufficient fibre),[85] intestinal blockage can occur.[86]
Reproduction
Diagram of the male rabbit reproductive system with main components labeled
The adult male reproductive system forms the same as most mammals with the seminiferous tubular compartment containing theSertoli cells and an adluminal compartment that contains theLeydig cells.[87] The Leydig cells producetestosterone, which maintains libido[87] and creates secondary sex characteristics such as thegenital tubercle andpenis. The Sertoli cells triggers the production ofAnti-Müllerian duct hormone, which absorbs the Müllerian duct. In an adult male rabbit, thesheath of the penis is cylinder-like and can be extruded as early as two months of age.[88] The scrotal sacs lay lateral to the penis and containepididymal fat pads which protect the testes. Between 10 and 14 weeks, the testes descend and are able to retract into the pelvic cavity to thermoregulate.[88] Furthermore, the secondary sex characteristics, such as the testes, are complex and secrete many compounds. These compounds includefructose,citric acid, minerals, and a uniquely high amount ofcatalase,[87] all of which affect the characteristics of rabbit semen; for instance, citric acid is positively correlated withagglutination,[89] and high amounts of catalase protect against prematurecapacitation.[90]
Diagram of the female rabbit reproductive system with main components labeled
The average female rabbit becomes sexually mature at three to eight months of age and can conceive at any time of the year for the duration of her life. Egg and sperm production can begin to decline after three years,[87] with some species such as those in genusOryctolagus completely stopping reproduction at 6 years of age.[93] During mating, the male rabbit will insert his penis into the female from behind, make rapid pelvic thrusts untilejaculation, and throw himself backward off the female.Copulation lasts only 20–40 seconds.[94]
The rabbitgestation period is short and ranges from 27 to 30 days.[26] A longer gestation period will generally yield a smaller litter while shorter gestation periods will give birth to a larger litter. The size of a single litter can range from 1 to 12 kits, depending on species.[95] After birth, the only role of males is to protect the young from other rabbits, and the mother will leave the young in the nest most of the day, returning to nurse them once every 24 hours.[26] The female can become pregnant again as early as the next day.[88]
After mating, the doe will begin to dig a burrow or prepare a nest before giving birth. Between three days and a few hours before giving birth another series of hormonal changes will cause her to prepare the nest structure. The doe will first gather grass for a structure, and an elevation inprolactin shortly before birth will cause her fur to shed that the doe will then use to line the nest, providing insulation for the newborn kits.[96]
The mortality rates of embryos are high in rabbits and can be due to infection, trauma, poor nutrition and environmental stress. A high fertility rate is necessary to counter this.[88] More than half of rabbit pregnancies are aborted, causing embryos to be resorbed into the mother's body;[93] vitamin deficiencies are a major cause of abortions in domestic rabbits.[97]
Rabbits may appear to becrepuscular, but many species[26] are naturally inclined towardsnocturnal activity.[98] In 2011, the average sleep time of a rabbit in captivity was calculated at 8.4 hours per day;[99] previous studies have estimated sleep periods as long as 11.4 hours on average, undergoing bothslow-wave andrapid eye movement sleep.[100][101] Newborn rabbits will sleep for 22 hours a day before leaving the nest.[102] As with otherprey animals, rabbits often sleep with their eyes open, so that sudden movements will awaken the rabbit to respond to potential danger.[103]
In addition to being at risk of disease from common pathogens such asBordetella bronchiseptica andEscherichia coli, rabbits can contract the virulent, species-specific virusesmyxomatosis,[104] and a form of calicivirus which causesrabbit hemorrhagic disease.[105] Myxomatosis is more hazardous to pet rabbits, as wild rabbits often have some immunity.[106] Among the parasites that infect rabbits are tapeworms (such asTaenia serialis), external parasites (including fleas and mites),coccidia species,Encephalitozoon cuniculi,[107] andToxoplasma gondii.[108][109] Domesticated rabbits with a diet lacking in high-fiber sources, such as hay and grass, are susceptible to potentially lethal gastrointestinal stasis.[110] Rabbits and hares are almost never found to be infected withrabies and have not been known to transmit rabies to humans.[111]
Rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) is a highly infectious rabbit-specific disease caused by strains ofrabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), includingtype 2 (RHDV2).[112] The disease was first described in domestic Angora rabbits imported from Germany toJiangsu, China in 1984, and quickly spread to Korea, Italy, and the rest of Europe. The disease spread to the Americas from 1988, first appearing in rabbits imported to Mexico, but subsequent outbreaks were infrequent, as RHDV only affected the European rabbit species.[113] RHDV2, a strain of RHD-causing virus that affects both domestic and wild lagomorphs, such as hares, was detected for the first time in France in 2010.[114] RHDV2 has since spread to the rest of Europe, Canada,[115] Australia,[116] and the United States.[117][112]
Ecology
Rabbit kits one hour after birth
Rabbits areprey animals. In Mediterranean Europe, for example, rabbits are the main prey of red foxes, badgers, and Iberian lynxes.[118] To avoid predation and to navigate underground, rabbits have heightened senses (compared to humans) and are constantly aware of their surroundings. If confronted by a potential threat, a rabbit may freeze and observe, then warn others in the warren with powerful thumps on the ground from a hind foot. Rabbits have a remarkably wide field of vision, and a good deal of it is devoted to overhead scanning.[119] A rabbit eye has nofovea, but a "visual streak", a horizontal line in the middle of the retina where both rod and cone cell densities are the highest. This allows them to scan the horizon with little head turning.[120][121]
Rabbits survive predation by burrowing (in some species),[122] and hopping away[60] to dense cover.[26] Their strong teeth allow them to bite to escape a struggle.[123]
The longest-lived rabbit on record, a domesticatedEuropean rabbit living inTasmania, died at age 18.[124] The lifespan of wild rabbits is much shorter; the average longevity of aneastern cottontail, for instance, is about one[125] to five years.[126] The various species of rabbit have been recorded as living from four[127][128] to 13 years in captivity.[129][130]
Rabbit habitats include forests, steppes, plateaus, deserts,[131] and swamps.[132] Some species, such as thevolcano rabbit (Romerolagus diazi) have especially limited distribution due to their habitat needs.[133] Rabbits live in groups, or colonies, varying in behavior depending on species and often using theburrows of other animals or creating nests in holes.[122] TheEuropean rabbit notably lives in extensive burrow networks calledwarrens.[134]
Rabbits are native to North America, southwestern Europe, Southeast Asia,Sumatra, some islands of Japan, and parts of Africa and South America. They are not naturally found in most ofEurasia, where a number of species ofhares are present.[135] A 2003 study on domestic rabbits in China found that "(so-called) Chinese rabbits were introduced from Europe", and that "genetic diversity in Chinese rabbits was very low".[136]
Rabbits first entered South America relatively recently, as part of theGreat American Interchange.[135] Much of the continent was considered to have just one species of rabbit, thetapeti,[137][b] and most of South America'sSouthern Cone has had no rabbits until the introduction of the European rabbit, which has been introduced to many places around the world,[54] in the late 19th century.[138]
Both sexes of rabbits often rub their chins on objects with theirscent gland located under the chin. This is the rabbit's way of marking their territory or possessions for other rabbits to recognize by depositing scent gland secretions. Rabbits who have bonded will respect each other's smell, which indicates a territorial border.[140] Rabbits also have scent glands that produce a strong-smelling waxy substance near their anuses.[141] Territorial marking by scent glands has been documented among both domestic[142] and wild rabbit species.[26]
Impact of rabbit-proof fence, Cobar, New South Wales, 1905
Rabbits, particularly the European rabbit,[26] have been a source of environmental problems when introduced into the wild by humans. As a result of their appetites, and the rate at which they breed,feral rabbit depredation can be problematic for agriculture. Gassing (fumigation of warrens),[143]barriers (fences),[144] shooting, snaring, andferreting[145][146] have been used to control rabbit populations,[146] but the most effective measures are diseases such asmyxomatosis andcalicivirus.[147] In Europe, where domestic rabbits are farmed on a large scale, they can be protected against myxomatosis and calicivirus via vaccination.[148]Rabbits in Australia and New Zealand are considered to be such a pest that landowners are legally obliged to control them.[149][150]
Rabbits are known to be able to catch fire and spread wildfires, particularly in Chile, where the European rabbit is an invasive species,[151] but the efficiency and relevance of this mechanism has been doubted by forest experts who contend that a rabbit on fire could move some meters.[152][153] Knowledge on fire-spreading rabbits is based on anecdotes as there is no known scientific investigation on the subject.[153]
Humans have hunted rabbits for food since at least the onset of theLast Glacial Maximum,[154] and wild rabbits and hares are still hunted for their meat asgame.[155] Hunting is accomplished with the aid of trainedfalcons,[156]ferrets,[157] ordogs (a common hunting breed beingbeagles),[158] as well as withsnares,[159] rifles and other guns.[158] A caught rabbit may be dispatched with a sharp blow to the back of its head, a practice from which the termrabbit punch is derived.[1][160]
Wild leporids comprise a small portion of global rabbit-meat consumption. Domesticated descendants of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) that are bred and kept as livestock (a practice calledcuniculture) account for the estimated 2million tons of rabbit meat produced annually.[161] Approximately 1.2 billion rabbits are slaughtered each year for meat worldwide.[162] In 1994, the countries with the highest consumption per capita of rabbit meat wereMalta with 8.89 kg (19.6 lb), Italy with 5.71 kg (12.6 lb), andCyprus with 4.37 kg (9.6 lb). The largest producers of rabbit meat were China, Russia, Italy (specificallyVeneto[104]), France, and Spain.[163] Rabbit meat was once a common commodity in Sydney, with European rabbits having been introduced intentionally to Australia for hunting purposes,[164] but declined after themyxomatosis virus was intentionally introduced to control the exploding population offeral rabbits in the area.[165]
In the United Kingdom, fresh rabbits are sold in butcher shops and markets, and some supermarkets sell frozen rabbit meat. It is sold in farmers markets there, including theBorough Market in London.[166] Rabbit meat is a feature of Moroccan cuisine, where it is cooked in atajine with "raisins and grilled almonds added a few minutes before serving".[167] In China, rabbit meat is particularly popular inSichuan cuisine, with its stewed rabbit, spicy diced rabbit, BBQ-style rabbit, and even spicy rabbit heads, which have been compared tospicy duck neck.[161] In the United States, rabbits sold as food are typically the domestic New Zealand,Belgian, and Chinese rabbits, or Scottish hares.[168]
An infectious disease associated with rabbits-as-food istularemia (also known asrabbit fever), which may be contracted from an infected rabbit.[169] The disease can cause symptoms offever,skin ulcers andenlarged lymph nodes, and can occasionally lead to pneumonia or throat infection.[170] Secondary vectors of tularemia includetick and fly bites, which may be present in the fur of a caught rabbit.[169] Inhaling the bacteria during the skinning process increases the risk of getting tularemia;[171] preventative measures against this include the use of gloves andface masks. Prior to the development ofantibiotics, such asdoxycycline andgentamicin, the death rate associated with tularemia infections was 60%, which has since decreased to less than 4%.[172]
In addition to their meat, domestic rabbits are used for theirwool[47] andfur for clothing,[173] as well as their nitrogen-rich manure and their high-protein milk.[174] Production industries have developed domesticated rabbit breeds (such as theAngora rabbit) for the purpose of meeting these needs.[44] In 1986, the number of rabbit skins produced annually in France was as high as 70 million, compared to 25 millionmink pelts produced at the same time. However, rabbit fur is on the whole a byproduct of rabbit meat production, whereas minks are bred primarily for fur production.[175]
In culture
Madonna of the Rabbit, a 16th-century painting depicting the white rabbit as a symbol of fertility and purity
Rabbits are often posited by scholars as symbols offertility,[176]sexuality and spring, though they have been variously interpreted throughout history.[177] Up until the end of the 18th century, it was widely believed that rabbits and hares werehermaphrodites, contributing to a possible view of rabbits as "sexually aberrant".[178] TheEaster Bunny is a figure from German folklore that then spread to America and later other parts of the world and is similar toSanta Claus, albeit both with softened roles compared to earlier incarnations of the figures.[179]
The rabbits' role as a prey animal with few defenses evokes vulnerability and innocence in folklore and modern children's stories, and rabbits appear as sympathetic characters, able to connect easily with youth, though this particular symbolic depiction only became popular in the 1930s following the massive popularization of the pet rabbit decades before.[176] Additionally, they have not been limited to sympathetic depictions since then, as in literature such asWatership Down[180][181] and the works ofAriel Dorfman.[182] With its reputation as a prolific breeder, the rabbit juxtaposes sexuality with innocence, as in thePlayboy Bunny.[183] The rabbit has also been used as a symbol of playfulness and endurance, as represented by theEnergizer Bunny and theDuracell Bunny.[184]
The rabbit often appears in folklore as thetricksterarchetype, as he uses his cunning to outwit his enemies. In Central Africa, the common hare (Kalulu) is described as a trickster figure,[185] and inAztec mythology, a pantheon of four hundred rabbit gods known asCentzon Totochtin, led byOmetochtli or Two Rabbit, represented fertility, parties, and drunkenness.[186] Rabbits in the Americas varied in mythological symbolism: in Aztec mythology, they were also associated with the moon,[186] and inAnishinaabe traditional beliefs, held by theOjibwe and some otherNative American peoples,Nanabozho, or Great Rabbit,[187] is an important deity related to the creation of the world.[188] More broadly, arabbit's foot may be carried as anamulet, believed to bring protection andgood luck. This belief is found in many parts of the world, with the earliest use being recorded in Europec. 600 BC.[189]
Rabbits also appear in Chinese, Vietnamese, Japanese and Korean mythology, though rabbits are a relatively new introduction to some of these regions. InChinese folklore, rabbits accompanyChang'e on the Moon,[190] and the moon rabbit is a prominent symbol in theMid-Autumn Festival.[191] In theChinese New Year, thezodiacal rabbit or hare is one of the twelve celestial animals in theChinese zodiac.[192] At the time of the zodiacal cycles becoming associated with animals in the Han dynasty,[193] only hares were native to China, with the currently extant breeds of rabbit in China being of European origin.[136] TheVietnamese zodiac includes azodiacal cat in place of the rabbit. The most common explanation is that the ancient Vietnamese word for "rabbit"(mao) sounds like the Chinese word for "cat" (卯,mao).[194] InJapanese tradition, rabbitslive on the Moon where they makemochi.[195] This comes from interpreting the pattern of dark patches on the moon as a rabbit standing on tiptoes on the left pounding on anusu, a Japanese mortar;[196] in some images, this rabbit is said to be creating a potion ofimmortality.[197] InKorean mythology, as in Japanese, rabbits live on the moon making rice cakes ("tteok" in Korean).[198]
Rabbits have also appeared in religious symbolism.Buddhism, Christianity, and Judaism have associations with an ancient circular motif called thethree rabbits (or "three hares"). Its meaning ranges from "peace and tranquility"[199] to theHoly Trinity.[200] The tripartite symbol also appears inheraldry.[201] InJewish folklore, rabbits are associated with cowardice, a usage still current in contemporary Israeli spokenHebrew. The original Hebrew word (shfanim, שפנים) refers to thehyrax, but early translations to English interpreted the word to mean "rabbit", as no hyraxes were known to northern Europe.[202] InGreek andRoman mythology, rabbits were associated with the hunting goddessesArtemis andDiana. Ancient Greek hunters were instructed to not hunt newborn rabbits, and to leave them "for the goddess". The constellationLepus is named for the rabbit, and was given its name byPtolemyc. 150 CE.[197]
Rabbit fools Elephant by showing the reflection of the moon. Illustration (from 1354) of thePanchatantra
On theIsle of Portland in Dorset, UK, the rabbit is said to be unlucky, and speaking the creature's name can cause upset among older island residents. This is thought to date back to early times in the local quarrying industry, where, to save space, extracted stones that were not fit for sale were set aside in what became tall, unstable walls. The local rabbits' tendency to burrow there would weaken the walls, and their collapse would result in injuries or even death. In the local culture to this day, the rabbit (when he has to be referred to) may instead be called a "long ears" or "underground mutton" so as not to risk bringing a downfall upon oneself.[207]
In other parts of Britain and in North America, "Rabbit rabbit rabbit" is one variant of anapotropaic ortalismanic superstition that involves saying or repeating the word "rabbit" (or "rabbits" or "white rabbits" or some combination thereof) out loud upon waking on the first day of each month, because doing so is believed to ensure good fortune for the duration of that month.[208]
The "rabbit test" is a term first used in 1949 for theFriedman test, an early diagnostic tool for detecting a pregnancy in humans. It is a common misconception (or perhaps anurban legend) that the test-rabbit would die if the woman was pregnant. This led to the phrase "the rabbit died" becoming a euphemism for a positive pregnancy test.[209]
Many modern children's stories and cartoons portray rabbits as particularly fond of eating carrots, largely due to the popularity of Bugs Bunny, whose carrot eating habit was modeled after Peter Warne, the character played byClark Gable in the 1934 romantic comedyIt Happened One Night.[210] This is misleading, as wild rabbits do not naturally prefer carrots over other plants. The misconception has led to some owners of domestic rabbits feeding them carrot-heavy diets.[211][212] Carrots are high in sugar, and excessive consumption can be unhealthy.[213]
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