 RMSLusitania arriving in New York City in 1907 | |
| History | |
|---|---|
 United Kingdom | |
| Name | RMSLusitania |
| Namesake | Lusitania |
| Owner |  Cunard Line |
| Port of registry | Liverpool |
| Route | Liverpool –Queenstown –New York |
| Builder | John Brown & Co,Clydebank |
| Yard number | 367 |
| Laid down | 17 August 1904 |
| Launched | 7 June 1906[1] |
| Christened | Mary, Lady Inverclyde |
| Acquired | 26 August 1907 |
| Maiden voyage | 7 September 1907 |
| In service | 1907 – 1915 |
| Out of service | 7 May 1915 |
| Identification |
|
| Fate | Torpedoed and sunk on 7 May 1915 |
| General characteristics | |
| Type | Ocean liner |
| Tonnage | 31,550 GRT, 12,611 NRT |
| Displacement | 44,060 long tons (44,767.0 t) |
| Length | |
| Beam | 87.8 ft (26.8 m) |
| Height | 65 ft (19.8 m) to boat deck, 165 ft (50.3 m) to aerials, 104 ft (31.7 m) from keel to top of boat deck, 144 ft (43.9 m) from keel to top of funnels |
| Draught | 33.6 ft (10.2 m) |
| Depth | 56.6 ft (17.3 m) |
| Decks | 6 passenger decks, 10 overall[2] |
| Installed power | 25fire-tube boilers; four direct-actingParsons steam turbines producing 76,000 hp (57 MW) |
| Propulsion |
|
| Capacity | 552 first class, 460 second class, 1,186 third class; 2,198 total. |
| Crew | 850 |
| Notes | First British four-funnelled ocean liner |
RMSLusitania was aBritish ocean liner launched by theCunard Line in 1906 as aRoyal Mail Ship. She was the world's largest passenger ship until the completion of her running mateMauretania three months later. In 1907, she gained theBlue Riband appellation for the fastest Atlantic crossing, which had been held by German ships for a decade.
Though reserved for conversion as anarmed merchant cruiser,[3][4]Lusitania was not commissioned as such during WWI but continued a transatlantic passenger service, sometimes carrying war materials, including a quantity of.303 ammunition, in its cargo.[5] The German submarineU-20 hit her with atorpedo on 7 May 1915 at 14:10, 11 miles (18 km) off theOld Head of Kinsale, Ireland, leading to her sinking about 18 minutes later. Only six of several dozenlifeboats andrafts[6] were successfully lowered; there were 767 survivors out of the 1,960 people on board, while 1,193 perished.[7]
The sinking killed more than a hundred US citizens and significantly increased American public support forentering the war, which occurred in 1917 with theUnited States declaration of war on Germany.[8][9]
German shipping lines wereCunard's main competitors for the custom of transatlantic passengers in the early 20th century, and Cunard responded by building two new 'ocean greyhounds':Lusitania andRMS Mauretania. Cunard used assistance from theBritish Admiralty to build both new ships, on the understanding that the ship would be available for military duty in time of war. During construction gun mounts for deck cannons were installed but no guns were ever fitted. BothLusitania andMauretania were powered bysteam turbine engines, which enabled them to maintain a service speed of 24knots (44 km/h; 28 mph). They were equipped with lifts,wireless telegraph, and electric light, and provided 50 percent more passenger space than any other ship; the first-class decks were known for their sumptuous furnishings.[10]: 45
A series of tit-for-tat moves intensified the naval portion ofWorld War I. TheRoyal Navy hadblockaded theGerman Empire at the start of the war; as a reprisal to German naval mining efforts, theUnited Kingdom then declared theNorth Sea a military area in the autumn of 1914 and mined the approaches. As their own reprisal, Germany had declared the seas around the United Kingdom a war zone, wherein allAllied ships would be liable to be sunk without warning. Britain then declared all food imports for Germany were contraband.[11]: 28 When submarines failed to sink many ships, the German authorities loosened U-boat rules of engagement. The German embassy in the United States also placed fifty newspaper advertisements warning people of the dangers of sailing on a British ship in the area, which happened to appear just asRMSLusitania left New York for Britain on 1 May 1915. Objections were made by the British and Americans that threatening totorpedo all ships indiscriminately was wrong, whether it was announced in advance or not.[11]: 6–7
On the afternoon of 7 May, a GermanU-boat torpedoedLusitania 11 miles (18 km) off the southern coast of Ireland inside the declared war zone. A second internal explosion occurred. The damage caused her to sink in 18 minutes, killing 1,197 passengers and crew. Hundreds of bodies washed ashore, but most were never found.
The German government attempted to find justifications for sinkingLusitania. Special justifications focused on the small declared cargo of 173 tons ofwar materials on board the 44,000-ton displacement ship, and false claims that she was an armed warship and carried Canadian troops. In defence of indiscriminately sinking ships without warning, they asserted thatcruiser rules were obsolete, as British merchant ships could be armed and had been instructed to evade or ram U-boats if the opportunity arose, and that the general warning given to all ships in the war zone was sufficient.[11]: 273 [12][13][14][15]
After the First World War, successive British governments maintained that there were no "munitions", apart from small arms ammunition on boardLusitania, and the Germans were not justified in treating the ship as a naval vessel.[16] But the most important protests at the time came from the US. Under neutrality inspections, the US was aware the ship was not armed, was acting in accordance with American law, and was chiefly a passenger vessel carrying almost two thousand civilian passengers and crew, including over a hundred American citizens among the dead. The US government argued that whatever the circumstances, nothing could justify the killing of large numbers of un-resisting civilians, and that the United States had a responsibility to protect the lives of law-abiding Americans. The Americans had already warned the Germans repeatedly about their actions, and the Germans had also demonstrated that submarines were able to sink merchant ships under cruiser rules.[17]
The sinking shifted public and leadership opinion in the United States against Germany. US and internal German pressure led to a suspension of German Admiralty policy of deliberately targeting passenger ships, as well as later stronger restrictions.[8][9] War was eventually declared in 1917 after the German government chose to violate these restrictions, deliberately attacking American shipping and preparing the way for conflict with theZimmermann Telegram.
Lusitania andMauretania were commissioned by Cunard, responding to increasing competition from rival transatlantic passenger companies, particularly the GermanNorddeutscher Lloyd (NDL) andHamburg America Line (HAPAG). They had larger, faster, more modern, and more luxurious ships than Cunard, and they were better placed to capture the lucrative trade in emigrants leaving Europe for North America. The NDL linerKaiser Wilhelm der Grosse captured theBlue Riband from Cunard'sCampania in 1897, before the prize was taken in 1900 by the HAPAG shipDeutschland. NDL regained the prize in 1903 with theKaiser Wilhelm II andKronprinz Wilhelm, and Cunard saw its passenger numbers affected as a result of the "Kaiser-class ocean liners".[18]
American businessmanJ. P. Morgan had decided to invest in transatlantic shipping by creatingInternational Mercantile Marine (IMM). He purchased the British freight shipperFrederick Leyland & Co. in 1901, as well as a controlling interest in the British passengerWhite Star Line, and folded them into IMM. In 1902, IMM, NDL, and HAPAG entered into a "Community of Interest" to fix prices and divide the transatlantic trade. The partners also acquired a 51-percent stake in the DutchHolland America Line. IMM made offers to purchase Cunard which was now its principal rival, along with the FrenchCompagnie Générale Transatlantique (CGT).[19]
Cunard chairmanLord Inverclyde approached the British government for assistance. The government was faced with the impending collapse of the British liner fleet and the consequent loss of national prestige, as well as the reserve of shipping for war purposes which it represented, and they agreed to help. Under the terms of an agreement signed in June 1903, Cunard was given a loan of £2.6 million to finance two ships, repayable over 20 years at a favourable interest rate of 2.75-percent. The ships would receive an annual operating subsidy of £75,000 each plus a mail contract worth £68,000. In return, the ships would be built to Admiralty specifications so that they could be used asauxiliary cruisers in wartime.[20]Lusitania and her sister ship received special permission to fly theBlue Ensign, as a Royal Naval Reserve Merchant Vessel.[21]
Cunard established a committee to decide upon the design for the new ships, of which James Bain, Cunard's Marine Superintendent was the chairman. Other members included Rear Admiral H. J. Oram, who had been involved in designs forsteam turbine-powered ships for theRoyal Navy, andCharles Parsons, whose companyParsons Marine was now producing turbine engines.[citation needed]
Parsons maintained that he could design engines capable of maintaining a speed of 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph), which would require 68,000shaft horsepower (51,000 kW). The largest turbine sets built so far had been of 23,000 shp (17,000 kW) for thebattleshipDreadnought, and 41,000 shp (31,000 kW) forInvincible-classbattlecruisers, which meant the engines would be of a new, untested design. Turbines offered the advantages of generating less vibration than the reciprocating engines and greater reliability in operation at high speeds, combined with lower fuel consumption. Having initially turned down the use of this relatively untried type of engine, Cunard was persuaded by the Admiralty to set up a committee of marine professionals to look at its possible use on the new liners. The relative merits of turbines and reciprocating engines were investigated in a series of trials between Newhaven and Dieppe using the turbine-driven cross-Channel ferry Brighton and the similarity-designed Arundel, which had reciprocating engines. The Turbine Committee was convinced by these and other tests that turbines were the way forward and recommended on 24 March 1904 that they should be used on the new express liners. In order to gain some experience of these new engines, Cunard asked John Brown to fit turbines onCarmania, the second of a pair of 19,500 GRT intermediate liners under construction at the yard.Carmania was completed in 1905 and this gave Cunard almost two years of experience before the introduction of their new super liners in 1907.[citation needed]
The ship was designed byLeonard Peskett[22] and built byJohn Brown and Company ofClydebank, Scotland. The ship's name was taken from Lusitania, an ancient Roman province on the west of theIberian Peninsula—the region that is now southern Portugal andExtremadura (Spain). Her sister ship,Mauretania, was named for the ancient land on the nearby northwest African coast. The nameLusitania had also been used by a previous ship built in 1871 and wrecked in 1901, making the name available fromLloyd's for Cunard's giant.[23][24]
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Peskett had built a large model of the proposed ship in 1902 showing a three-funnel design. A fourth funnel was implemented into the design in 1904 as it was necessary to vent the exhaust from additional boilers fitted after steam turbines had been settled on as the power plant. The original plan called for three propellers, but this was altered to four because it was felt the necessary power could not be transmitted through just three. Four turbines would drive four separate propellers, with additional reversing turbines to drive the two inboard shafts only. To improve efficiency, the two inboard propellers rotated inward, while those outboard rotated outward. The outboard turbines operated at high pressure; the exhaust steam then passing to those inboard at relatively low pressure.[citation needed]
The propellers were driven directly by the turbines, for sufficiently robust gearboxes had not yet been developed, and only became available in 1916. Instead, the turbines had to be designed to run at a much lower speed than those normally accepted as being optimum. Thus, the efficiency of the turbines installed was less at low speeds than a conventionalreciprocating steam engine, but considerably superior when the engines were run at high speed, as was usually the case for an express liner. The ship was fitted with 23 double-ended and two single-ended boilers (which fitted the forward space where the ship narrowed), operating at a maximum 195 psi (1,340 kPa) and containing 192 individual furnaces.[25]
Work to refine the hull shape was conducted in the Admiralty experimental tank atHaslar, Gosport. As a result of experiments, the beam of the ship was increased by 10 ft (3.0 m) over that initially intended to improve stability. The hull immediately in front of the rudder and thebalanced rudder itself followed naval design practice to improve the vessel's turning response. The Admiralty contract required that all machinery be below the waterline, where it was considered to be better protected from gunfire, and the aft third of the ship below water was used to house the turbines, the steering motors and four 375-kilowatt (503 hp) steam-driven turbo-generators. The central half contained four boiler rooms, with the remaining space at the forward end of the ship being reserved for cargo and other storage.[citation needed]
Coal bunkers were placed along the length of the ship outboard of the boiler rooms, with a large transverse bunker immediately in front of that most forward (number 1) boiler room. Apart from convenience ready for use, the coal was considered to provide added protection for the central spaces against attack. At the very front were the chain lockers for the anchor chains and ballast tanks to adjust the ship's trim.[citation needed]
The hull space was divided into 13 watertight compartments, any two of which could be flooded without risk of the ship sinking, connected by 35 hydraulically operated watertight doors. A critical flaw in the arrangement of the watertight compartments was that sliding doors to the coal bunkers needed to be open to provide a constant feed of coal whilst the ship was operating, and closing these in emergency conditions could be problematic. The ship had a double bottom with the space between divided into separate watertight cells. The ship's exceptional height was due to the six decks of passenger accommodation above the waterline, compared to the customary four decks in existing liners.[26]
High-tensile steel was used for the ship's plating, as opposed to the more conventionalmild steel. This allowed a reduction in plate thickness, reducing weight but still providing 26 per cent greater strength than otherwise. Plates were held together by triple rows of rivets. The ship was heated and cooled throughout by a thermo-tank ventilation system, which used steam-driven heat exchangers to warm air to a constant 65 °F (18.3 °C), while steam was injected into the airflow to maintain steady humidity.[citation needed]
Forty-nine separate units driven by electric fans provided seven complete changes of air per hour throughout the ship, through an interconnected system, so that individual units could be switched off for maintenance. A separate system of exhaust fans removed air from galleys and bathrooms. As built, the ship conformed fully withBoard of Trade safety regulations which required sixteen lifeboats with a capacity of about 1,000 people.[27]
At the time of her completion,Lusitania was briefly the largest ship ever built, but was soon eclipsed by the slightly largerMauretania which entered service shortly afterwards. She was 3 ft (0.91 m) longer, a full 2 knots (3.7 km/h; 2.3 mph) faster, and had a capacity of 10,000 gross register tons over and above that of the most modern German liner,Kronprinzessin Cecilie. Passenger accommodation was 50% larger than any of her competitors, providing for 552 saloon class, 460 cabin class and 1,186 in third class. Her crew comprised 69 on deck, 369 operating engines and boilers and 389 to attend to passengers. Both she andMauretania had a wireless telegraph, electric lighting, electric lifts, sumptuous interiors and an early form of air-conditioning.[28]
Lusitania andMauretania possessed the most luxurious, spacious, and comfortable interiors afloat at the time. Scottish architectJames Miller was chosen to designLusitania's interiors, whileHarold Peto was chosen to designMauretania. Miller chose to use plasterwork to create interiors, whereas Peto made extensive use of wooden panelling, with the result that the overall impression given byLusitania was brighter thanMauretania.
The ship's passenger accommodation was spread throughout six decks. From the top deck down to the waterline, they were: Boat Deck (A Deck), the Promenade Deck (B Deck), the Shelter Deck (C Deck), the Upper Deck (D Deck), the Main Deck (E Deck), and the Lower Deck (F Deck), with each of the three passenger classes being allotted their own space on the ship. First-class, second-class, and third-class passengers were strictly segregated from one another, as was the norm for cruise ships at the time. She was designed to carry 2,198 passengers and 827 crew members, according to her original configuration in 1907.
Lusitania's first-class accommodation was in the centre section of the ship on the five uppermost decks, mostly concentrated between the first and fourth funnels. She could cater to 552 first-class passengers when fully booked.
Lusitania's first-class interiors were decorated with a mélange of historical styles. The first-class dining saloon was the grandest of the ship's public rooms, arranged over two decks with an open circular well at its centre and crowned by an elaborate dome measuring 29 feet (8.8 m), decorated with frescos in the style ofFrançois Boucher, realised throughout in theneoclassicalLouis XVI style. The lower floor measured 85 feet (26 m) and could seat 323, with a further 147 on the 65-foot (20 m) upper floor. The walls were finished with white and gilt carved mahogany panels, with Corinthian decorated columns which were required to support the floor above. The one concession to seaborne life was that furniture was bolted to the floor, meaning that passengers could not rearrange their seating for their personal convenience.[29]
All other first-class public rooms were situated on the boat deck and composed of a lounge, reading and writing room, smoking room, and veranda café. The café was an innovation on a Cunard liner; one side could be opened up in warm weather to give the impression of sitting outdoors. This would have been a rarely used feature given the often inclement weather of the North Atlantic.[30]
The first-class lounge was decorated inGeorgian style with inlaid mahogany panels surrounding a jade green carpet with a yellow floral pattern, measuring overall 68 ft (21 m). It had a barrel vaulted skylight rising to 20 ft (6.1 m) with stained glass windows each representing one month of the year.
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Each end of the lounge had a 14-foot (4.3 m) high green marble fireplace incorporating enamelled panels byAlexander Fisher. The design was linked overall with decorative plasterwork. The library walls were decorated with carved pilasters and mouldings marking out panels of grey and cream silk brocade. The carpet was rose, with Rose du Barry silk curtains and upholstery. The chairs and writing desks weremahogany, and the windows featured etched glass. The smoking room wasQueen Anne style, with Italian walnut panelling and Italian red furnishings. The grand stairway linked all six decks, with wide hallways on each level and two lifts. First-class cabins ranged from one shared room through various suite arrangements in a choice of decorative styles, culminating in the two regal suites which had two bedrooms, dining room, parlour, and bathroom. The port suite decoration was modelled on thePetit Trianon.[31]
Lusitania's second-class accommodation was confined to the stern behind the aft mast, with quarters for 460 passengers. The second-class public rooms were situated on partitioned sections of boat and promenade decks housed in a separate section of the superstructure aft of the first-class passenger quarters. Design work was deputised toRobert Whyte, who was the architect employed by John Brown. The design of the dining room reflected that of first class, with just one floor of diners under a ceiling with a smaller dome and balcony. Walls were panelled and carved with decorated pillars, all in white. The dining room was situated lower down in the ship on the saloon deck. The smoking and ladies' rooms occupied the accommodation space of the second-class promenade deck, with the lounge on the boat deck.
The 42-foot (13 m) room had mahogany tables, chairs, and settees set on a rose carpet. The smoking room was 52 ft (16 m) with mahogany panelling, white plaster work ceiling and dome. One wall had a mosaic of a river scene in Brittany, while the sliding windows were blue-tinted. Second-class passengers were allotted shared two- and four-berth cabins arranged on the shelter, upper, and main decks.[32]
Third class aboardLusitania was praised for the improvement in travel conditions that it provided to passengers;Lusitania proved to be a popular ship for emigrants.[33] Third-class accommodation in most ships of the time consisted of large open spaces where hundreds of people would share open berths and hastily constructed public spaces, often consisting of no more than a small portion of open deck space and a few tables constructed within their sleeping quarters. In an attempt to break that mould, the Cunard Line began designing ships such asLusitania with more comfortable third-class accommodation. Third-class accommodation aboardLusitania was located at the forward end of the ship on the shelter, upper, main, and lower decks, and it was comfortable and spacious compared with other ships of the time. The 79-foot (24 m) dining room was at the bow of the ship on the saloon deck, finished in polished pine, as were the smoke room and ladies room on the shelter deck.
WhenLusitania was fully booked in third class, the smoking and ladies room could easily be converted into overflow dining rooms for added convenience. Meals were eaten at long tables with swivel chairs and there were two sittings for meals. A piano was provided for passenger use. What greatly appealed to emigrants and lower class travellers was the honeycomb of two, four, six, and eight berth cabins allotted to third-class passengers on the main and lower decks, instead of being confined to open berth dormitories.[34]
TheBromsgrove Guild had designed and constructed most of the trim onLusitania.[35]Waring and Gillow supplied a number of the furnishings.
Lusitania'skeel was laid atJohn Brown on Clydebank as yard no. 367 on 17 August 1904,Lord Inverclyde hammering home the first rivet. Cunard nicknamed her 'the Scottish ship' in contrast toMauretania whose contract went toSwan Hunter in England and who started building three months later. Final details of the two ships were left to designers at the two yards so that the ships differed in details of hull design and finished structure. The ships may most readily be distinguished in photographs through the flat-topped ventilators used onLusitania, whereas those onMauretania used a more conventional rounded top.
The shipyard at John Brown had to be reorganised because of her size so that she could be launched diagonally across the widest available part of the river Clyde where it met a tributary (theRiver Cart), the ordinary width of the river being only 610 feet (190 m) compared to the 786-foot (240 m) long ship. The new slipway took up the space of two existing ones and was built on reinforcing piles driven deeply into the ground to ensure it could take the temporary concentrated weight of the whole ship as it slid into the water. In addition, the company spent £8,000 to dredge the Clyde, £6,500 on new gas plant, £6,500 on a new electrical plant, £18,000 to extend the dock and £19,000 for a new crane capable of lifting 150 tons as well as £20,000 on additional machinery and equipment.[36]Construction commenced at the bow working backwards, rather than the traditional approach of building both ends towards the middle. This was because designs for the stern and engine layout were not finalised when construction commenced. Railway tracks were laid alongside the ship and across deck plating to bring materials as required. The hull, completed to the level of the main deck but not fitted with equipment weighed about 16,000 tons.[37]
The ship's stockless bower anchors weighed 101⁄4 tons, attached to 125 ton, 600 metres (330 fathoms) chains all manufactured byN. Hingley & Sons Ltd. The steam capstans to raise them were constructed by Napier Brothers Ltd, ofGlasgow. The turbines were 25 ft (7.6 m) long with 12 ft (3.7 m) diameter rotors, the large diameter necessary because of the relatively low speeds at which they operated. The rotors were constructed on site, while the casings and shafting were constructed in John Brown's Atlas works inSheffield. The machinery to drive the 56-ton rudder was constructed byBrown Brothers ofEdinburgh. A mainsteering engine drove the rudder through worm gear and clutch operating on a toothed quadrant rack, with a reserve engine operating separately on the rack via a chain drive for emergency use. The 17 ft (5.2 m) three-bladed propellers were fitted and then cased in wood to protect them during the launch.[38]
The ship was launched on 7 June 1906, eight weeks later than planned due to labour strikes and eight months after Lord Inverclyde's death.Princess Louise was invited to name the ship but could not attend, so the honour fell to Inverclyde's widow Mary.[39][1] The launch was attended by 600 invited guests and thousands of spectators.[40] One thousand tons of drag chains were attached to the hull by temporary rings to slow it once it entered the water.[41] The wooden supporting structure was held back by cables so that once the ship entered the water it would slip forward out of its support. Six tugs were on hand to capture the hull and move it to the fitting out berth.[42]Testing of the ship's engines took place in June 1907 prior to full trials scheduled for July. A preliminary cruise, orBuilder's Trial, was arranged for 27 July with representatives of Cunard, the Admiralty, the Board of Trade, and John Brown aboard. The ship achieved speeds of 25.6 knots (47.4 km/h; 29.5 mph) over a measured 1 mile (1.6 km) atSkelmorlie with turbines running at 194 revolutions per minute producing 76,000 shp. At high speeds the ship was found to suffer such vibration at the stern as to render the second-class accommodation uninhabitable. VIP invited guests now came on board for a two-day shakedown cruise during which the ship was tested under continuous running at speeds of 15, 18 and 21 knots but not her maximum speed. On 29 July, the guests departed and three days of full trials commenced. The ship travelled four times between theCorsewall Light off Scotland to theLongship Light offCornwall at 23 and 25 knots, between the Corsewall Light and theIsle of Man, and theIsle of Arran andAilsa Craig. Over 300 mi (480 km) an average speed of 25.4 knots was achieved, comfortably greater than the 24 knots required under the Admiralty contract. The ship could stop in 4 minutes in 3/4 of a mile starting from 23 knots at 166 rpm and then applying full reverse. She achieved a speed of 26 knots over a measured mile loaded to a draught of 33 feet (10 m), and managed 26.5 knots over a 60-mile (97 km) course drawing 31.5 ft (9.6 m). At 180 revolutions a turning test was conducted and the ship performed a complete circle of diameter 1000 yards in 50 seconds. The rudder required 20 seconds to be turned hard to 35 degrees.[43][44]
The vibration was determined to be caused by interference between the wake of the outer propellers and inner and became worse when turning. At high speeds the vibration frequencyresonated with the ship's stern making the matter worse. The solution was to add internal stiffening to the stern of the ship but this necessitated gutting the second-class areas and then rebuilding them. This required the addition of a number of pillars and arches to the decorative scheme. The ship was finally delivered to Cunard on 26 August although the problem of vibration was never entirely solved and further remedial work went on throughout her life.[45]
The White Star Line'sOlympic-class vessels were almost 100 ft (30 m) longer and slightly wider thanLusitania andMauretania. This made the White Star vessels about 15,000tons larger than the Cunard vessels. BothLusitania andMauretania were launched and had been in service for several years beforeOlympic,Titanic andBritannic were ready for the North Atlantic run. Although significantly faster than theOlympic class would be, the speed of Cunard's vessels was not sufficient to allow the line to run a weekly two-ship transatlantic service from each side of the Atlantic. A third ship was needed for a weekly service, and in response to White Star's announced plan to build the threeOlympic-class ships, Cunard ordered a third ship:Aquitania. LikeOlympic, Cunard'sAquitania had a lower service speed, but was a larger and more luxurious vessel.
Due to their increased size theOlympic-class liners could offer many more amenities thanLusitania andMauretania. BothOlympic andTitanic offered swimming pools,Victorian-style Turkish baths, a gymnasium, asquash court, large reception rooms, À la Carte restaurants separate from the dining saloons, and many more staterooms with private bathroom facilities than their two Cunard rivals.
Heavy vibrations as a by-product of the four steam turbines onLusitania andMauretania would plague both ships throughout their voyages. WhenLusitania sailed at top speed the resultant vibrations were so severe that second- and third-class sections of the ship could become uninhabitable.[10]: 46 In contrast, theOlympic-class liners used two traditionalreciprocating engines and only one turbine for the central propeller, which greatly reduced vibration. Because of their greater tonnage and wider beam, theOlympic-class liners were also more stable at sea and less prone to rolling.Lusitania andMauretania both featured straightprows in contrast to the angled prows of theOlympic class. Designed so that the ships could plunge through a wave rather than crest it, theunforeseen consequence was that the Cunard liners would pitch forward alarmingly, even in calm weather, allowing huge waves to splash the bow and forward part of the superstructure.[10]: 51–52 This would be a major factor in damage thatLusitania suffered at the hands of a rogue wave in January 1910.
The vessels of theOlympic class also differed fromLusitania andMauretania in the way in which they were compartmented below the waterline. The White Star vessels were divided by transverse watertightbulkheads. WhileLusitania also had transverse bulkheads, it also had longitudinal bulkheads running along the ship on each side, between the boiler and engine rooms and the coal bunkers on the outside of the vessel. The British commission that had investigated the sinking ofTitanic in 1912 heard testimony on the flooding of coal bunkers lying outside longitudinal bulkheads. Being of considerable length, when flooded, these could increase the ship's list and "make the lowering of the boats on the other side impracticable"[46]—and this was precisely what later happened withLusitania. The ship'sstability was insufficient for the bulkhead arrangement used: flooding of only three coal bunkers on one side could result in negativemetacentric height.[47] On the other hand,Titanic was given ample stability and sank with only a few degrees list, the design being such that there was very little risk of unequal flooding and possible capsize.[48]
Lusitania did not carry enough lifeboats for all her passengers, officers and crew on board at the time of her maiden voyage (carrying four lifeboats fewer thanTitanic would carry in 1912). This was a common practice for large passenger ships at the time, since the belief was that in busy shipping lanes help would always be nearby and the few boats available would be adequate to ferry all aboard to rescue ships before a sinking. After theTitanic sank,Lusitania andMauretania were equipped with an additional sixclinker-built wooden boats underdavits, making for a total of 22 boats rigged in davits. The rest of their lifeboat accommodations were supplemented with 26 collapsible lifeboats, 18 stored directly beneath the regular lifeboats and eight on the after deck. The collapsibles were built with hollow wooden bottoms and canvas sides, and needed assembly in the event they had to be used.[49]
This contrasted withOlympic andBritannic which received a full complement of lifeboats all rigged under davits. This difference would have been a major contributor to the high loss of life involved withLusitania's sinking, since there was not sufficient time to assemble collapsible boats or life-rafts, had it not been for the fact that the ship's severe listing made it impossible for lifeboats on the port side of the vessel to be lowered, and the rapidity of the sinking did not allow the remaining lifeboats that could be directly lowered (as these were rigged under davits) to be filled and launched with passengers. WhenBritannic, working as a hospital ship during the First World War, sank in 1916 after hitting a mine in the Kea Channel the already davited boats were swiftly lowered saving nearly all on board, but the ship took nearly three times as long to sink asLusitania and thus the crew had more time to evacuate passengers.
Lusitania, commanded by Commodore James Watt, moored at theLiverpool landing stage for her maiden voyage at 4:30 pm on Saturday 7 September 1907 as the onetime Blue Riband holderRMS Lucania vacated the pier. At the timeLusitania was the largest ocean liner in service and would continue to be until the introduction ofMauretania in November that year. A crowd of 200,000 people gathered to see her departure at 9:00 pm forQueenstown, where she was to take on more passengers. She anchored again atRoche's Point, off Queenstown, at 9:20 am the following morning, where she was shortly joined byLucania, which she had passed in the night, and 120 passengers were brought out to the ship by tender bringing her total of passengers to 2,320.
At 12:10 pm on SundayLusitania was again under way and passing the Daunt Rock Lightship. In the first 24 hours she achieved 561 mi (903 km), with further daily totals of 575, 570, 593 and 493 mi (793 km) before arriving atSandy Hook at 9:05 am Friday 13 September, taking in total 5 days and 54 minutes, 30 minutes outside the record time held byKaiser Wilhelm II of theNorth German Lloyd line. Fog had delayed the ship on two days, and her engines were not yet run in. In New York hundreds of thousands of people gathered on the bank of theHudson River fromBattery Park to pier 56. All New York's police had been called out to control the crowd. From the start of the day, 100 horse-drawn cabs had been queuing, ready to take away passengers. During the week's stay the ship was made available for guided tours. At 3 pm on Saturday 21 September, the ship departed on the return journey, arriving at Queenstown at 4:00 am 27 September and Liverpool 12 hours later. The return journey was 5 days 4 hours and 19 minutes, again delayed by fog.[50]
On her second voyage in better weather,Lusitania arrived at Sandy Hook on 11 October 1907 in the Blue Riband record time of 4 days, 19 hours and 53 minutes. She had to wait for the tide to enter harbour where news had preceded her and she was met by a fleet of small craft, whistles blaring.Lusitania averaged 23.99knots (44.43 km/h) westbound and 23.61 knots (43.73 km/h) eastbound. In December 1907,Mauretania entered service and took the record for the fastest eastbound crossing.Lusitania made her fastest westbound crossing in 1909 after her propellers were changed, averaging 25.85 knots (47.87 km/h). She briefly recovered the record in July of that year, butMauretania recaptured the Blue Riband the same month, retaining it until 1929, when it was taken bySS Bremen.[51] During her eight-year service, she made a total of 201 crossings on the Cunard Line's Liverpool-New York Route, carrying a total of 155,795 passengers westbound[52] and another 106,180 eastbound.[53]
Lusitania and other ships participated in theHudson-Fulton Celebration in New York City from the end of September to early October 1909. The celebration was also a display of the different modes of transportation then in existence,Lusitania representing the newest advancement in steamship technology. A newer mode of travel was theaeroplane.Wilbur Wright had brought aFlyer toGovernors Island and made demonstration flights before millions of New Yorkers who had never seen an aeroplane. Some of Wright's trips were directly overLusitania; several photographs ofLusitania from that week still exist.[54][55][56]
On 10 January 1910,Lusitania was two days into a voyage from Liverpool to New York when she encountered arogue wave 75 feet (23 m) high.[57] The design of the ship's bow allowed her to break through waves instead of riding on top of them. That came with a cost, as the wave rolled over the bow and hit the bridge.[58] The forecastle deck was damaged, the bridge windows were smashed, the bridge was shifted a couple of inches aft, and deck and bridge were given a permanent depression of a few inches.[59] 1 person was injured, andLusitania continued on as normal, arriving a few hours late in New York.[citation needed]
Lusitania's construction and operating expenses were subsidised by the British government, with the provision that she could be converted to anarmed merchant cruiser (AMC) if needed. This included pillars and supports to enable the emplacement of 12 6-inch naval guns, and on the officialNavy List the ship was listed as a "Royal Naval Reserve Merchant Vessel".[3] In the 1914 edition ofJane's All the World's Fighting Ships, its silhouette was listed for identification reasons as a civilian liner, together withMauretania and all liners of all nations capable of over 18 knots.[60] Brassley's 1914The Naval Annual categorised her as a "Royal Naval Reserved Merchant Cruiser".[61] When war was declared the Admiralty issued orders for nine liners, includingMauretania andLusitania to be taken up as armed merchant cruisers. However, the large Cunard liners were soon released, due to their large fuel costs relative to their usefulness and a shortage of guns. They were thus never armed or commissioned.[62][12][63]
The treatment of civilian vessels in war is governed by theCruiser Rules according to internationalcustomary law. These required the lives of the crew and passengers to be safeguarded when the ship is confiscated or sunk, unless out of urgent, unforeseen reasons of strict military necessity.[64] Nevertheless, fears ran high for the safety ofLusitania and other great liners despite these rules.Lusitania was painted in a grey colour scheme during her first east-bound crossing after the war started, in an attempt to mask her identity and make her more difficult to detect visually.
Many of the large liners were laid up from 1914 to 1915, due in part to falling demand for passenger travel across the Atlantic, and in part to protect them from damage due to mines or other dangers. Some of these liners were eventually used as troop transports, while others became hospital ships, butLusitania remained in commercial service. Bookings were not strong during that autumn and winter, but demand was high enough to keep her in civilian service.[65]
Cunard took measures to economise, such as shutting down her Number 4 boiler room to conserve coal and crew costs. This reduced her maximum speed from over 25 knots (46 km/h; 29 mph) to 21 knots (39 km/h; 24 mph). The ship's disguised paint scheme was also dropped, and she was returned to civilian colours. Her name was picked out in gilt, her funnels were repainted in their normal Cunard livery, and her superstructure was painted white again. One alteration was the addition of a gold-coloured band around the base of the superstructure just above the black paint.[66]
By early 1915, the new threat of submarines began to grow. On 4 February 1915, Germany declared the seas around Great Britain and Ireland to be a war zone, warning thatAllied ships in the area would be sunk without warning beginning by 18 February. This was not whollyunrestricted submarine warfare, as the Germans would take efforts to avoid sinking neutral ships, but "enemy" passenger craft were included as targets, despite the US demand for "strict accountability". U-boat success rates proved to be lower than expected, so the Germans loosened the rules of engagement in April.[69]
Lusitania arrived in Liverpool on 6 February flying the neutral US ensign, which had been raised off southern Ireland causing controversy.[70] She was next scheduled to arrive in Liverpool on 6 March 1915. The Admiralty issued specific instructions on how to avoid submarines, adding to earlier advice that ships should try to evade submarines if possible or steer towards them to force them to dive. Bailey and Ryan have argued that such instructions could compromise the ship's rights under cruiser rules.[71] AdmiralHenry Oliver ordered HMSLouis and HMSLaverock to escortLusitania, and took the further precaution of sending theQ-ship HMSLyons to patrolLiverpool Bay.[b] Due to a communications issue, Captain Daniel Dow did not make contact with the destroyers but proceeded to Liverpool unescorted.[72][73][74]
Some alterations were made to the ship's protocols. She was ordered not to fly any flags in the war zone. There was no hope of disguising her identity, however, as her profile was so well known, and the British made no attempt to paint out the ship's name at the bow.[c] Captain Dow was replaced by CaptainWilliam Thomas Turner, who had commandedLusitania,Mauretania, andAquitania in the years before the war.[75]
On 17 April 1915,Lusitania left Liverpool on her 201st transatlantic voyage, arriving in New York on 24 April. On 22 April, the German Embassy underJohann Heinrich von Bernstorff submitted a general warning about travel to 50 American newspapers, including those in New York, which coincidentally[68] appeared in newspapers just before the ship sailed.[76]: 2
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The ship departedPier 54 in New York on 1 May 1915 at 12:20 pm on her final voyage.[77][78] The Saturday evening edition ofThe Washington Times published two articles on its front page referring to the previous day's warnings.[79]
On 7 May 1915,Lusitania was nearing the end of her 202nd crossing, bound for Liverpool from New York, and was scheduled to dock at the Prince's Landing Stage later that afternoon. Aboard her were 1,264 passengers, three stowaways, and a crew of 693, totalling 1,960 people. She was running parallel to the south coast of Ireland and was roughly 11 miles (18 km) off theOld Head of Kinsale when she crossed in front ofU-20 at 2:10 pm. The U-boat's commanding officerWalther Schwieger later claimed not to have identified the ship, and he gave the order to fire one torpedo. He reported that it struckLusitania on the starboard bow, just behind the bridge. Moments later, a second explosion erupted from withinLusitania's hull where the torpedo had struck, and the ship began to founder rapidly, with a prominent list to starboard.[80][d]
The crew scrambled to launch the lifeboats almost immediately, but the conditions of the sinking made their usage extremely difficult or even impossible because of the ship's severe list. Only six out of 48 lifeboats were launched successfully, with several more overturning and breaking apart. The ship's trim levelled out 18 minutes later, and she sank at position51°24′45″N08°32′52″W / 51.41250°N 8.54778°W /51.41250; -8.54778, with the funnels and masts the last to disappear.[81]
A total of 1,197 lost their lives out of the 1,960 passengers and crew aboard at the time of the sinking. In the hours after the sinking, both the survivors and the Irish rescuers who had heard word ofLusitania's distress signals performed many acts of heroism, and this brought the survivor count to 767, four of whom later died from injuries.[7]HMS Juno sortied briefly in contravention of Royal Navy policy, but turned back believing that there was no "urgent necessity".[76] By the following morning, the true scope of the disaster had spread around the world. Most of those lost in the sinking were British or Canadian, but 128 Americans were also lost, including writer and publisherElbert Hubbard, builderAlbert Clay Bilicke, theatrical producerCharles Frohman, businessmanAlfred Gwynne Vanderbilt, andNewport News Shipbuilding president Albert L. Hopkins.[82]
The sinking caused an international outcry, especially in Britain and across the British Empire, as well as in the United States.[7][84] On 8 May, unofficial German spokesmanBernhard Dernburg[85] said thatLusitania "carried contraband of war" and that "she was classed as an auxiliary cruiser," so Germany had a right to destroy her regardless of any passengers aboard. Dernburg claimed that Germany was relieved of any responsibility for the deaths of American citizens aboard because the German Embassy had issued warnings before the sailing, and the 18 February note had declared the existence of "war zones". He referred to the ammunition and military goods declared onLusitania's manifest and said that "vessels of that kind" could be seized and destroyed under theHague Rules.[e][86] Germany adopted a similar official line to "incite public opinion at home" on the advice of Admiral Tirpitz.[87]
In 1913, Churchill had announced thatLusitania would be converted into a warship, "indistinguishable in status and control from men-of-war", if war was declared. However, this was not done.[88] Her cargo had included an estimated 4,200,000 rounds of rifle cartridges, 1,250 empty shell cases, and 18 cases of non-explosive fuses, which were openly listed in her cargo manifest.[89][90] The day after the sinking,The New York Times published full details of the ship's military cargo.[91] Cunard's assistant manager Herman Winter denied the charge that she carried munitions, but admitted that she was carrying small-arms ammunition, and that she had been carrying such ammunition for years.[89] The fact thatLusitania had been carrying shells and cartridges could not be openly discussed in the British press at the time.[92] Cunard delivered a 27-page additional manifest to U.S. customs four or five days afterLusitania sailed from New York stating that the "empty shells" were in fact 1,248 boxes of filled three-inch shells, four shells to the box, totalling 103,000 pounds or 50 tonnes.[76]
Public opinion was outraged in the United States. The key issue was the savagery in the alleged "German failure to allow passengers to escape on life boats" as required by international law, and Germany's attempts to defend the attack only increased anger.[93] In Germany, many newspapers celebrated the event as a triumph,[94] though allied propaganda at times exaggerated the level of popular support.[95]
The issue was hotly debated within the U.S. government in the weeks following the sinking, and the U.S. and German governments exchanged correspondence. German officials continued to argue thatLusitania was a legitimate military target. German Foreign Minister Von Jagow cited the claims that she was listed as an armed merchant cruiser, she was using neutral flags, and she had been ordered to ram submarines—in contravention of the Cruiser Rules.[96][97][98] Von Jagow further alleged thatLusitania had carried munitions and Allied troops on previous voyages.[99] Grand AdmiralAlfred von Tirpitz stated that it was sad that many Americans "in wanton recklessness, and in spite of the warnings of our Ambassador, had embarked in this armed cruiser, heavily laden with munitions", but he insisted that Germany had been within her rights to sink the ship.[11]: 255
PresidentWoodrow Wilson saw his main goal as to negotiate an end to the war.[100] He was given contradictory advice. Secretary of StateWilliam Jennings Bryan privately advised him that "ships carrying contraband should be prohibited from carrying passengers."[101] However, CounselorRobert Lansing advised Wilson to adhere to the US's prior position of "strict accountability". All that mattered, according to Lansing, was the German responsibility for the safety of the unresisting crew and passengers of the ship. It was confirmed that the ship was not armed and was attacked by surprise, and no justification can allow the violation of "the principles of law and humanity".[102] Wilson adopted Lansing's view, insisting that the German government apologise for the sinking, compensate U.S. victims, and promise to avoid any similar occurrence in the future.[103] Bryan resigned, believing that Wilson's approach compromised American neutrality; he was replaced by Lansing as Secretary of State.[104]
Germany had already declared in February that all allied ships in the area would be sunk, regardless of whether they carried munitions. The strategic aim of AdmiralHugo von Pohl'sU-boat campaign was economic warfare against Britain, not the interception of weapons or destruction of war vessels. Germany's concept of "contraband of war" had expanded to include essentially all cargo.Gustav Bachmann had directed on 12 February that enemy passenger vessels should be deliberately targeted, so as to create a "shock effect".[105] There was a fierce debate within Germany, as officials were keenly aware that further sinkings were likely, including ones where Germany's excuses did not apply. Hence secret orders were issued in June that rescinded Bachmann's orders and stated that unrestricted submarine warfare on ocean liners would cease. Tirpitz and Bachmann offered their resignations, but they were rejected by the Kaiser.[106] Yet Germany continued to attack and sink other passenger ships, such as theSS Orduna andRMS Hesperian.[107]
The Germans decided on 9 September 1915 that attacks were only allowed on ships that were definitely British, while neutral ships were to be treated under thePrize Law rules, and no attacks on passenger liners were to be permitted at all.[104][108] But in January 1917, the German government announced that it would again conduct fullunrestricted submarine warfare. This pushed American public opinion over the tipping point, and the United States Congress followed President Wilson to declare war on Germany on 6 April 1917.[109]
After the war, American interests sued the German government for compensation. In 1923, 278 claimants were initially awarded $23 million (equivalent to $330 million in 2024).[110] On 23 February 1924, the SeattleStar reported that JudgeEdwin B. Parker denied 40 claims and settled on a final payout of $841,000 ($12 million in 2024).[110]
To commemorate the centenary of the sinking, on 3 May 2015 a small fleet of ships sailed from theIsle of Man. Seven fishermen from Man, in their boatThe Wanderer, had rescued 150 people from theLusitania and were awarded medals for their participation. Two of these medals can be seen at theLeece Museum inPeel.[111]
The 100th commemoration of the sinking of theLusitania was on 7 May 2015. To commemorate the occasion, Cunard'sMS Queen Victoria undertook a voyage toCork, Ireland.[112]
The wreck ofLusitania was located on 6 October 1935, 11 miles (18 km) south of the lighthouse atKinsale. She lies on herstarboard side at about a 30-degree angle, in roughly 305 feet (93 m) of water. The wreck is badly collapsed onto its starboard side, due to the force with which it struck the bottom coupled with the forces of winter tides and corrosion in the decades since the sinking. Thekeel has an "unusual curvature" which may be related to a lack of strength from the loss of itssuperstructure. Thebeam is reduced with thefunnels missing—presumably due to deterioration.[113]
Thebow is the most prominent portion of the wreck with thestern damaged by depth charges. Three of the four propellers were removed byOceaneering International in 1982 for display, though one was melted down. Expeditions toLusitania have shown that the ship has deteriorated much faster thanTitanic has, being in a depth of 305 feet (93 m) of water. When contrasted with her contemporary,Titanic (resting at a depth of 12,500 feet (3,800 m)),Lusitania appears in a much more deteriorated state due to the presence of fishing nets lying on the wreckage, the blasting of the wreck with depth charges and multiple salvage operations. As a result, the wreck is unstable and may at some point completely collapse.[113] There has been recent academic commentary exploring the possibility of listing the wreck site as a World Heritage Site under theWorld Heritage Convention, although challenges remain in terms of ownership and preventing further deterioration of the wreck.[114]
Between 1931 and 1935, an American syndicate comprisingSimon Lake, an important submarine inventor, and a US Navy officer, Captain H.H. Railey, negotiated a contract with the Admiralty and other British authorities to partially salvageLusitania.[115] The means of salvage was unique in that a 200-foot (61 m) steel tube, five feet in diameter, which enclosed stairs, and a dive chamber at the bottom would be floated out over theLusitania wreck and then sunk upright, with the dive chamber resting on the main deck ofLusitania. Divers would then take the stairs down to the dive chamber and then go out of the chamber to the deck ofLusitania. Lake's primary business goals were to salvage the purser's safe and any items of historical value.[116] It was not to be though, and in Simon Lake's own words, "... but my hands were too full"—i.e. Lake's company was having financial difficulties at the time—and the contract with British authorities expired 31 December 1935 without any salvage work being done, even though his unique salvage tunnel had been built and tested.[117]
In 1935 a Glasgow-based expedition was launched to try to find the wreck ofLusitania. The Argonaut Corporation Ltd was founded and the salvage shipOrphir used to search for the ship.[118] After three months of searching the wreck was discovered on 6 October 1935. Diver Jim Jarrett wore a Tritoniadiving suit to explore the wreck at a depth of 93 metres.[119]
In 1967, the wreck ofLusitania was sold by the Liverpool & London War Risks Insurance Association to former US Navy diver John Light (1932–1992) for £1,000. Americanventure capitalist Gregg Bemis (1928–2020) became a co-owner of the wreck in 1968, and by 1982 had bought out his partners to become sole owner. Complex litigation ensued when employees of Bemis brought various artifacts ashore into the UK, with all parties settling their differences apart from thesalvors and the British government, which asserted "droits of admiralty" over the recovered items. The judge eventually ruled inThe Lusitania, [1986] QB 384, [1986] 1 All ER 1011, that the Crown has no rights over wrecks outside Britishterritorial waters, even if the recovered items are subsequently brought into the United Kingdom.[f] As of 1998[update], the case remained the leading authority on this point of law.[120][needs update] However, a subsequent US court case where Bemis attempted to stop others from diving the wreck found that Bemis had no ownership over the personal effects and cargo on board the ship.[121]
In 1993, Bemis granted permission to Titanic wreck explorerRobert Ballard to explore the wreck. Ballard attempted to prove that the ship was sunk by the explosion of illegal explosives. The exploration was difficult, hampered by snagged fishing nets and the presence of unexploded depth charges. While the ship was lying on her starboard side and so he was not able to access the area of the torpedo strike, he was able to useROVs to examine under the bow. He found that the entire exposed area of the cargo hold was "clearly undamaged", concluding that no secondary explosion took place there and that acoal dust explosion was likely responsible instead.[122] Bemis rejected his findings and continued to research the wreck.
Bemis then faced more serious litigation on the issue of artifact recovery occurred versus Ireland.[123][124] This was because in 1995 the Irish Government declared theLusitania a heritage site under theNational Monuments Act, which prohibited him from in any way interfering with her or her contents. After a protracted legal wrangle, the Supreme Court in Dublin overturned the Arts and Heritage Ministry's previous refusal to issue Bemis with a five-year exploration licence in 2007, ruling that the then minister for Arts and Heritage had misconstrued the law when he refused Bemis's 2001 application. Bemis planned to dive and recover and analyse whatever artefacts and evidence could help piece together the story of what happened to the ship. He said that any items found would be given to museums following analysis. Any fine art recovered—such as the paintings byRubens,Rembrandt andMonet, among other artists, believed to have been in lead tubes in the possession of SirHugh Lane—would remain in the ownership of the Irish Government.[125]
In late July 2008, Bemis was granted an "imaging" licence by the Department of the Environment, which allowed him to photograph and film the entire wreck, and was to allow him to produce the first high-resolution pictures of her. Bemis planned to use the data gathered to assess how fast the wreck was deteriorating and to plan a strategy for a forensic examination of the ship, which he estimated would cost $5m. Florida-basedOdyssey Marine Exploration (OME) was contracted by Bemis to conduct the survey. The Department of the Environment's Underwater Archaeology Unit was to join the survey team to ensure that research would be carried out in a non-invasive manner, and a film crew from the Discovery Channel was also to be on hand.[126] A dive team from Cork Sub Aqua Club, diving under licence, discovered 15,000 rounds of the.303 (7.7×56mmR) calibre rifle ammunition transported onLusitania in boxes in the bow section of the ship. The find was photographed but leftin situ under the terms of the licence.[127]
Results from the dives were provided to researchers at theLawrence Livermore National Laboratory, who in 2012 concluded that this showed that the ship was sunk mainly by the effect of the torpedo, with a secondary explosion due to the boilers that did not significantly affect subsequent events. Bemis rejected the findings.[128]
Continuing to attempt to prove British involvement, in July 2016, Bemis's diving partner Eoin McGarry attempted to recover but lost atelegraph machine from the ship. This caused controversy as the dive was unsupervised by anyone with archaeological expertise.[129][130] In November 2018, Bemis was interviewed for one hour on live radio about theLusitania about some of the logistical complications in conducting a maritime archaeological expedition to penetrate the hull. He claimed that some of the original art presumed to be lost in wreckage may not have been, and discussed his continuing belief that Churchill caused the sinking.[131]
In 2020, Bemis died. Despite millions of dollars spent, he was never able to find proof of his conspiracy theory. The wreck is currently owned by a museum inKinsale, Ireland.[132]
A number of technical divers attempting to dive at theLusitania wreckage site have been seriously injured.[133] Regardless of the unconfirmed presence of secret WWI explosives,mixed gases must be used to reach the wreckage, which purportedly is littered with British depth charges and hedgehog mines[clarification needed], covered in fishing nets, and where sediment limits visibility.[134][135]
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| Preceded by | Holder of theBlue Riband (Westbound record) 1907–1909 | Succeeded by |
| Preceded by | Blue Riband (Eastbound record) 1907 | |
Shipwrecks and maritime incidents in May 1915 | |
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| Shipwrecks |
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| Other incidents |
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