Qingdao, archaicly known asTsingtao,[a] is aprefecture-level city in the easternShandongProvince ofChina. Located on China'sYellow Sea coast, Qingdao was long an important fortress.[3] In 1897, the city was ceded to Germany. For the Germans, Qingdao was a strategic trade center, port and base for itsEast Asia Squadron, allowing the German navy to project dominance in the Pacific.[4] In 1914, following the outbreak ofWorld War I, Japan occupied the city and the surrounding province during theSiege of Tsingtao. In 1915, China agreed to recognize Japan's special position in the territory through what became known as theTwenty-One Demands.[5] In 1918, the Chinese government, under the control of the warlordDuan Qirui, secretly agreed to Japanese terms in exchange for a loan. Following the First World War, during theParis Peace Conference, Japan secured agreements with the Allied powers to recognize its claim to the areas in Shandong, which included Qingdao, previously occupied by Germany. In 1922, Shandong reverted to Chinese control following the United States' mediation during theWashington Naval Conference.[3] Today, Qingdao is a major nodal city of theBelt and Road Initiative (BRI) that connects Continental and East Asia with Europe.[6] It has the highest GDP of any city in the province.
This sectionneeds expansion. You can help byadding to it.(September 2025)
Human settlement in the area dates back 6,000 years. TheDongyi lived here and created theDawenkou,Longshan and Dongyeshi cultures.[22] In theEastern Zhou dynasty (770–256 BC), the town ofJimo was established, which was then the second-largest one in the Shandong region.
Sketch map of Qingdao, circa 1906Main gate of former Chinese munitions depot, taken over by theImperial German Navy, Kiautschou Bay, Shandong peninsula, 1898
Under theQing Empire, the area in which Qingdao is now located was known asJiao'ao (胶澳).[23] In 1891, the Qing decided to fortify Jiao'ao as a defense against naval attacks.Imperial German naval officials observed and reported on this activity during a formal survey ofJiaozhou Bay in May 1897. In November of that year, theJuye Incident would take place, in which three German missionaries were attacked, and two were killed. Subsequently, German troops seized and occupied the fortification.[24]
The preindustrial, waning Qing Empire was forced to concede the area to Germany the following year, and theKiautschou Bay concession, as it became known, existed from 1898 to 1914.[25]
With an area of 552 km2 (136,000 acres; 213 sq mi), it was located in the imperial province ofShandong (alternately romanized asShantung or Shan-tung) on the southern coast of theShandong Peninsula in northern China. Jiaozhou was alternatively romanized as Kiaochow, Kiauchau, or Kiao-Chau in English, and Kiautschou in German; Qingdao was its administrative center. "The so-calledMarktstrasse (Market Street) was nothing more than the old main street of the Chinese village of Qingdao, and the buildings lining it were the former homes offishermen andfarmers. Having sold their property, they resettled their homes and fields in the villages further east."[26]
Upon gaining control of the area, the Germans outfitted the impoverished fishing village of Qingdao with wide streets, solid housing areas, government buildings, electrification throughout, a sewer system and a safe drinking water supply, a rarity in large parts ofAsia at that time and later.[27]
The area had the highest school density and the highestper capita student enrollment in all of China, with primary, secondary and vocational schools funded by theImperial German treasury andProtestant andRoman Catholic missions.[27] Commercial interests established the Germania Brewery in 1903, which later became the world-famousTsingtao Brewery.[28] German cultural and commercial influences extended to other areas of Shandong Province, including the establishment of diverse commercial enterprises.
Identified by the German authorities as a strategically important port, Qingdao was administered by theImperial Department of the Navy (Reichsmarineamt) rather than theImperial Colonial Office (Reichskolonialamt). The growing Imperial German Navy based theirEast Asia Squadron there, allowing the warships to conduct operations throughout the westernPacific. Beginning in January 1898, the marines ofIII. Seebataillon were based at Qingdao. Construction of theJiaoji Railway began on 23 September 1899, and was completed in 1904.[29]
Before the outbreak ofWorld War I (1914–1918), ships of the German naval forces underAdmiral Count von Spee were located at central Pacific colonies on routine missions. The fleet then rendezvoused in theMarianas Islands to plan a transit back to Germany rather than be trapped in the Pacific by more powerful and numerous Allied fleets (British and Japanese).[note 1]
After a minor British naval attack on the German concession in Shandong in 1914,Japanese troops occupied the city and the surrounding province during theSiege of Tsingtao (Qingdao) after Japan's declaration of war on Germany in accordance with theAnglo-Japanese Alliance.[30] China protested against Japan's violation of her neutrality but was not able to interfere in the military operations.[31] The decision of theParis Peace Conference and theVersailles Treaty negotiations not to restore Chinese rule over the previous foreign concessions in Qingdao after the Great War triggered theMay Fourth Movement (4 May 1919) of anti-imperialism, nationalism and cultural identity in China.[32]
Map of Qingdao in 1912
The city came under Chinese rule in December 1922, under control of theRepublic of China (ROC) established in 1912 after the1911 Revolution the year before. However, Japan maintained its economic dominance of the railway and the province as a whole.[33] The city became adirect-controlled municipality of the ROC Government in July 1929.
The development of the Qingdao urban space during the German occupation (1898–1914) originated from the port. Mass urban construction began in 1898 with the relocation of Chinese dwellers along the coast.[34] With the completion of such series of mass construction projects such as wharves, the Tsingtao-Jinan Railway Line, Tsingtao Railway Station and locomotive works, a city was starting to take shape.[35] The area had the highest school density and highest per capita student enrollment in all of China, with primary, secondary and vocational schools funded by the Berlin treasury as well as Protestant and Roman Catholic missions.[36]
In 1910, the Germans drew up for the second time the city planning of Tsingtao (Warner 2001, p. 33). The former urban area was extended four times highlighted by the emphasis on the development of commerce and trade.Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925), leader of the 1911 Revolution and subsequently first president of theRepublic of China, visited the Tsingtao area and stated in 1912, "I am impressed. The city is a true model for China's future".[37]
The development of Tsingtao urban space continued during the first Japan-occupation period (1914–1922). In 1914, Tsingtao was taken over by the Japanese and served as a base for the exploitation of natural resources of Shandong and northern China. With the development of industry and commerce, a "New City District" was established to furnish the Japanese colonists with commercial sections and living quarters, which suggested a striking contrast to the shabby houses in the local Chinese zones (Li 2007, p. 133). In the meantime, several schools, hospitals, and public buildings were constructed, followed by urban streets and intercity highways as well. The urban spatial layout continued to expand northward along the east bay area.
The development of Tsingtao urban space during the ROC-ruled period (1922–1938). This period saw the substantial progress of the urban development of Tsingtao. The government engaged itself in mass construction that gave birth to villa districts at the beach and bank groups in CBD. Plenty of public buildings and facilities for entertainment and sports were completed. By the year 1937, the urban population numbered 385,000(Lu 2001, p. 327). Tsingtao consequently distinguished itself as a prominent holiday resort and summer retreat.
The development of Tsingtao urban space during the second Japan-occupied period (1938–1945). Japanese armed forces returned to Tsingtao in 1938 and started to strive for the construction of the Greater Tsingtao in the following June. Accordingly, they worked out the city planning of the Greater Tsingtao and the City Planning of the Mother Town (Tsingtao City Proper), even though they had not had the opportunity to actualize either, respectively. The period in question did not witness much urban progress except for the logical construction of No. 6 Wharf, some Japanese residences, and a small number of roads and streets (Lu 2001, p. 339).
After World War II, theKMT allowed Qingdao to serve as the headquarters of theWestern Pacific Fleet of theUS Navy in 1945; however, its headquarters were transferred to thePhilippines sometime in late 1948. On 2 June 1949, theCPC-ledRed Army entered Qingdao and the city and province have been underPRC control since that time.
Since the 1984 inauguration of China's open-door policy to foreign trade and investment, Qingdao has rapidly developed into an ultramodern port city. It is now the headquarters of theChinese navy's northern fleet. An early example of the open-door policy occurred on 5 November 1984, when three United States Naval vessels visited Qingdao. This was the first US port call to China in more than 37 years.USS Rentz,USS Reeves, andUSS Oldendorf and their crews were officially hosted by the ChinesePeople's Liberation Army Navy (PLAN).
Northern Qingdao, particularlyShibei,Licang, andChengyang districts, are now major manufacturing centers. The city has recently experienced a strong growth period, with a new central business district created to the east of the older business district. Outside of the center of the city, there is a large industrial zone, which includes chemical processing, rubber, and heavy manufacturing, in addition to a growing high-tech area. Numerous local and national service companies, rather than manufacturers, are based in the city's southern district.
The sub-provincial city of Qingdao has seven districts (区; qū) and three county-level cities (市; shì):Qingdao City, located in Shandong Province, China, is a prefecture-level city with several aliases, including "Island City" and "Jiaozhou Bay". Qingdao is a vice-provincial-level city, a separately listed city, and recognized as a major city.
According to the approval of the State Council, Qingdao is designated as an important coastal center city and a coastal resort tourism city in China, as well as an international port city. Qingdao City administers 7 districts and 3 county-level cities. These districts include Shinan District, Shibei District, Huangdao District, Laoshan District, Licang District, Chengyang District, and Jimo District, while the county-level cities consist of Jiaozhou City, Pingdu City, and Laixi City.
Geographically, there are three districts (Shinan, Shibei, Licang) constituting a peninsula on the east coast of theJiaozhou Bay as the core urban area, one (Chengyang) on the north coast and one (Xihai'an) on the west coast of theYellow Sea.
Qingdao (labeled CH'ING-TAO (TSINGTAO)青島) (1954)Map including Qingdao (labeled as CH'ING-TAO (TSINGTAO))
Qingdao is located on the south-facing coast of theShandong Peninsula (German:Schantung-Halbinsel). It borders three prefecture-level cities, namelyYantai to the northeast,Weifang to the west, andRizhao to the southwest. The city occupies an area totaling 10,654 km2 (4,114 sq mi), and stretches in latitude from 35° 35' to 37° 09' N and in longitude from 119° 30' to 121° 00' E. The populated sections of the city are relatively flat while mountains spur up within city limits and nearby. The highest elevation in the city is located 1,133 meters (3,717 ft)above sea level. Of the total area of Qingdao, 15.5% is highland, while the foothill, plain, and lowland areas constitute 25.1%, 37.8%, and 21.7%, respectively. The city has a 730.64-kilometer (454.00 mi)-long coastline. Five significant rivers exceeding 50 kilometers (31 mi) in length can be found in the region.
Qingdao has a temperate, four-season,monsoon-influenced[39] climate that lies in the transition between thehumid subtropical (Köppen:Cwa) andhumid continental (Köppen:Dwa) regimes. Due to the direct regulation of the marine environment, the city is influenced by the southeast monsoon and the currents and water masses from the ocean, so it also has significant maritime climate characteristics.[40] Winters range from cool to cold and windy, but are generally dry, with a January average of 0.2 °C (32.4 °F). Summer is generally hot and humid, but very hot days are rare, with an August average of 25.6 °C (78.1 °F). Due to its proximity to the coast and location on a peninsula, compared to most inland areas of China, its spring is delayed by one month,[39] and the annualdiurnal temperature variation is only 6.3 °C (11.3 °F); conversely, its fall is milder than inland areas in Shandong. The water temperature peaks at about 25 °C (77 °F) in late August. Thus, swimming is possible for two months on either side. The annual mean temperature is 13.3 °C (55.9 °F). Extremes since 1951 have ranged from −15.9 °C (3 °F) on 7 and 8 January 2021[41] to 38.9 °C (102 °F) on 15 July 2002;[42] unofficial readings have reached a record low of −16.9 °C (1.6 °F) or for the official weather station there, −16.4 °C (2.5 °F) on 10 January 1931.[43][44] With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 38 percent in July to 59 percent in October, the city receives 2,261 hours of bright sunshine annually.[45]
During the summer months, the beaches of Qingdao are afflicted by massivealgal blooms. The decomposing algae release large amounts ofhydrogen sulfide gas, which produces an offensive "rotten egg" odor.Sea lettuce blooms, which are partially caused byseaweed farming in Jiangsu Province, led local officials to declare a "large-scale algae disaster" in 2013.[46]
Climate data for Qingdao, elevation 76 m (249 ft), (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951–present)
Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions.
Of the 10 million residents of Qingdao, 6.2 million reside in the Qingdao urban area. Another estimated 5 million live in other cities under Qingdao's jurisdiction.[53] The annual birth rate is calculated around 76,507, with abirth rate of 10.15 per year per thousand, and adeath rate of 6.32, both calculated on an annual basis. Living standards are among the highest of leading Chinese cities due to the strong export economy and relatively high family wages.
There is a large Korean community in Qingdao. By 2009, there were approximately 100,000 Koreans working, studying and living in Qingdao, which makes Qingdao the second in terms of Korean population in China, following Beijing which has about 200,000 Koreans.[54]
According to the 2021 Qingdao Statistical Yearbook, the permanent resident population of Qingdao in 2020 was 10.1057 million, an increase of 182700 people compared to the previous year.[55][56]
Qingdao-basedTsingtao beer, China's second-largest domestic brand and its largest export brand.Qingdao TV Tower
In recent years, an important region in Eastern China, Shandong Province has seen substantial change in its economic landscape. Much of this development has been concentrated in Qingdao.[57] Qingdao has seen rapid development. With an annual growth rate of 18.9 percent in 2006, the city's GDP reached 42.3 billion, ranking first in Shandong Province and tenth out of China's top 20 cities.[57]GDP per capita comprisedCN¥52,895 (US$7,616) in 2008. In 2024, Qingdao's GDP per capita comprised CN¥161,200 (US$23,000).[58]
In 2006, Qingdao was ranked one of six "golden cities" by the World Bank, out of 120 Chinese cities assessed on factors including investment climate and government effectiveness.[57] In 2018, Qingdao's GDP reached CN¥1200.15 billion, though it shrank a little in 2019.[59]
Tsingtao Brewery Company Limited
Internationally, Qingdao is perhaps best known for itsTsingtao Brewery, founded by a German-British joint venture in 1903 that producesTsingtao beer, the best-known Chinese export beer. It is also home toHaier, a largewhite goods manufacturer, andHisense, a major electronics company. In 2002 guitar manufacturersEpiphone opened a factory in Qingdao.[60]
In 1984 the Chinese government named a district of Qingdao aSpecial Economic and Technology Development Zone (SETDZ). Along with this district, the entire city had gone through fast-tracked development ofsecondary andtertiary industries. Qingdao has been the recipient of large foreign investment and its port is a hub for local and international trade.South Korea andJapan in particular made extensive investments in the city. In terms ofprimary sectorindustries, Qingdao has an estimated 50,000 acres (200 km2) ofarable land.[citation needed] Qingdao has a zigzagging pattern coastline, and thus possesses an invaluable stock of fish,shrimp, and other sea resources.
Qingdao'swind power electricity generation performs at among the highest levels in the region.[61]
There are a total of 1,145 km (711 mi) of roads in the Qingdao area, with nearly 500 km (310 mi) of expressways. TheseNational Trunk Highway System (NTHS) Expressways begin or pass through in Qingdao.[62] Expressways that begin in Qingdao are inBold:
On 30 June 2011, the longest bridge over water opened in Qingdao. The bridge,Haiwan Bridge, is 26.4 miles (42.5 km) long and connects Qingdao toHuangdao and Hongdao. The bridge is almost three miles (4.8 km) longer than the previousrecord-holder, theLake Pontchartrain Causeway in theAmerican state ofLouisiana. Haiwan Bridge is supported by more than 5,000 pillars and costs about 10 billion yuan which is about 1.5 billion dollars. The bridge was designed by theShandong Gausu Group and the construction lasted for four years. Haiwan Bridge cut the commute between the city of Qingdao and the sprawling suburb of Huangdao by 30 minutes. At least 10,000 workers toiled in two teams around the clock to build the bridge, which was constructed from opposite ends.[63]
On the same day, theJiaozhou Bay Tunnel opened. The tunnel brought much convenience to people by supporting public buses and making transport between the two areas more convenient.
Qingdao (official name: Qingdao port international co. ltd.) hosts one of the world's busiestseaports. Cooperative relations have been established with 450 ports in 130 countries worldwide. The port of Qingdao is part of the21st Century Maritime Silk Road.[64][65] In 2003, the annual cargo handling capacity exceeded 100 milliontons for the first time. The number of containers reached 3.41 million twenty-foot equivalent units (TEU) of cargoes.[66]
By 2011, the port had become the world's sixth-busiest by Total Cargo Volume, having handled 372,000,000 metric tons (366,000,000 long tons; 410,000,000 short tons) of cargo in that year. As of 2016, it was the 8th in the world in terms of TEUs (Twenty Foot Equivalent Units).[67]
TheOrient Ferry connects Qingdao withShimonoseki, Japan. There are two ferry lines connecting Qingdao withSouth Korea. TheNew Golden Bridge II operates between Qingdao andIncheon, and theBlue Sea Ferry operates between Qingdao andGunsan.[68]
Qingdao port also includes a number of large adjacent ports including Dongjiakou.[69]
D and G series high-speed trains travel on the Jinan–Qingdao high-speed railway and reach speeds of 300 km/h (190 mph) on the Jinan-Qingdao Section.[73] Services go toBeijing,Shanghai,Hefei,Jinan andTianjin.[74] The fastest train between Qingdao and Beijing is G206 / G205, which takes 2 hours and 58 minutes.[75]
Qingdao's public traffic owns 5283 large and medium-sized buses,CNG buses as of 2012[update]. There are also 136trolleybuses as of 2012[update]. All of the buses and trolleybuses can be accessed using the Qingdao Public TrafficIC Card (青岛卡), which uses radio frequencies so the card does not have to physically touch the scanner. After that, all public transportation companies use Qingdaotong Card, the last company that started to use this card is the Zhenqing bus company located in The West Coast New Area of Qingdao (original Huangdao Distinct) in 2019.
Non air-conditioned buses cost 1 yuan (excluding the tunnel bus), The volume of road passenger transport approaches 737 million per year.[76] The Public Transport Brand of 'Ri-Xin Bus (日新巴士)' is also known in China.
There are several taxi companies in Qingdao including Yiqing Company, Zhongqing Company, Jiaoyun Company, and, Huaqing Company.
After getting the approval from the State Council, the government announced on 18 August 2009 that Qingdao is ready to spend more than 29 billion yuan ($4.2 billion) before 2016 on its subway construction. Construction of 54.7 km (34.0 mi) of subway line 3 was completed before 2016 with a total investment of 29.2 billion yuan ($4.3 billion). Metro Line 3 is the first line in function and opened on 16 December 2015. In the long term, the city plans to build eight subway lines in downtown and some suburban districts, which account for 231.5 km (143.8 mi) in future.[78] The system has an operating length of 243 km (151 mi), lines in operation includingLine 1,Line 2,Line 3,Line 4,Line 6,Line 8, theOceantec Valley Line, and theWest Coast Line.[77]
As of February 24, 2023, according to the approved network plan of Qingdao City, there are 19 long-term plans for Qingdao Metro, with a total length of 872 kilometers; The third phase construction plan has been approved, with a total of 13 lines and a total length of 503 kilometers, ranking ninth in the national approved mileage level; Seven lines have been opened and operated, including Lines 1, 2, 3, 4, 8, 11, and 13, with an operating mileage of 315 kilometers. As of March 2023, there are 146 operating stations, ranking tenth in China and second in northern cities; There are 10 lines under construction (including extension lines), including the West Extension and Phase II of Line 2, Line 5, Phase I and Phase II of Line 6, Phase II of Line 7, South Section and Branch of Line 8, Phase I of Line 9, and Phase I of Line 15. The total length under construction is 188 kilometers, and it is expected to be fully completed by 2028.
TheQingdao Tram system is operating in Chengyang District
The Qingdao Tram (official name: Modern tram demonstration line) of Chengyang District, Qingdao, is a tram system operating in Chengyang District, Qingdao, China. It opened in 2016. The Qingdao Public Transport Group Rail Bus Co., Ltd. is responsible for operation and management. The system is only composed of 1 tram line.
Qingdao retains many buildings with a German architectural style
There are a large number of German-style buildings in Qingdao'scity center, a remarkable fact considering the German leased-territory period only lasted 16 years (1898–1914). The unique combination of German and Chinese architecture therein, combined with German demographic roots and a large Korean expatriate population, gives Qingdao a rather distinct atmosphere. An old saying described Qingdao as a city of "red tiles green trees, blue sky, and blue sea." This saying indeed gives a picture of a bird view of Qingdao. A larger number of areas in former foreign styles are well preserved. Although the new city area is under large-scale reconstruction, the old city area (especially the western part ofShinan District) still retains many traditional buildings.
During the city's leased-territory days,German, the official language, was rigorously taught and promoted. Since the demise of Germany's colonial empire after World War I, the German language is all but gone, leaving little impact on the local languages. A local accent known asQingdao dialect (Chinese:青岛话;pinyin:Qīngdǎo huà) distinguishes the residents of the city from those of the surroundingShandong province. Due to the efforts by the city government to promote standardMandarin, most educated people can speak standard Mandarin in addition to their native dialect. With reform policies and English teaching, some young citizens have been taught English and many can converse with English-speaking foreigners. Business and traffic signs in English are becoming more and more common.
Qingdao attracts many tourists due to its seaside setting and temperate weather. Parks, beaches, sculptures, and unique German and modern architecture line the shore. Its centrally located tourist information center, the "Qingdao Information Center for International Visitors for International Visitors," is located on Middle Hong Kong Road (香港中路).
The twin-spiredSt. Michael's Cathedral (Kathedrale St. Michael;天主教堂), a notable example of Qingdao's famousNeo-romanesque architecture, designed by German architect Alfred Fräbel, completed in 1934.
Qingdao International Sailing Centre, 2021Qingdao International Sailing Centre (青岛奥林匹克帆船中心), hosted the Olympic and Paralympic Sailing competitions in 2008.
During the2008 Summer Olympics, Qingdao and Beijing cohosted the Olympic Sailing competitions.[85] In Qingdao, the events took place along the shoreline by the city. These events were hosted at theQingdao International Sailing Center atFushan Bay, near the city's central business district. An international broadcasting center and purpose-built hotel were constructed for the Games.
TheIndyCar Series signed a contract with the Qingdao city council to hold anIndyCar race in Qingdao in 2012. The subsequently canceled race was supposed to take place on a 6.23 km (3.87 mi) street circuit.[86][87]
^"青岛" [Qingdao].CCTV国家地理. National Ocean Information Center.
^Gottschall, Terrell (2003).By Order of the Kaiser, Otto von Diederichs and the Rise of the Imperial German Navy 1865–1902. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. p. 146.ISBN978-1-55750-309-1.
^abSchultz-Naumann, Joachim (1985).Unter Kaisers Flagge: Deutschlands Schutzgebiete im Pazifik und in China einst und heute [Under the Kaiser's Flag: Germany's protected areas in the Pacific and in China then and now] (in German). Universitas. p. 183.ISBN978-3-8004-1094-1.
^Schultz-Naumann, Joachim (1985).Unter Kaisers Flagge: Deutschlands Schutzgebiete im Pazifik und in China einst und heute (in German). Universitas. p. 183.ISBN978-3-8004-1094-1.
^ab自然地理 [Geography] (in Simplified Chinese). Qingdao: Shinan District Information Office.Archived from the original on 2 June 2010. Retrieved29 June 2010.
^Annette S. Biener: Das deutsche Pachtgebiet Tsingtau in der Provinz Schantung, 1897–1914. Institutioneller Wandel durch Kolonialisierung (Studien und Quellen zur Geschichte Schantungs und Tsingtaus. Bd. 6). Matzat, Bonn 2001,ISBN3-924603-05-7.
^"About Dongjiakou port".www.qingdao-port.com/. Qingdao Port International Co. Ltd.Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved31 October 2017.
^For several years before August 2008, travelers not from Qingdao were often confused because railway tickets to Qingdao showed the destination as "Sifang". Those trains were headed to Qingdao's Sifang station as a temporary measure. Once renovations to the larger Qingdao Railway Station were complete, the name of the destination reverted to "Qingdao".
^杨传忠 (17 October 2012).济青高铁建设近年无望 济青1小时生活圈得等等.Qilu Evening News (in Chinese (China)).济南铁路局胶济客专公司一位负责人说,胶济客专的客运正线长362.5公里,设计速度最高250公里/小时,现在行车时速为200公里.
^列车时刻 (in Simplified Chinese). Qingdao railway station. Archived fromthe original on 8 January 2013. Retrieved12 January 2013.
Gottschall, Terrell D.By Order of the Kaiser: Otto von Diederichs and the Rise of the Imperial German Navy 1865–1902. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. 2003.ISBN1-55750-309-5
Schultz-Naumann, Joachim.Unter Kaisers Flagge: Deutschlands Schutzgebiete im Pazifik und in China einst und heute [Under the Kaiser's Flag, Germany's Protectorates in the Pacific and in China then and today]. Munich: Universitas Verlag. 1985.
Walravens, Hartmut. "German Influence on the Press in China". In:Newspapers in International Librarianship: Papers Presented by the Newspaper Section at IFLA General Conferences.Walter de Gruyter, 1 January 2003.ISBN3110962799,ISBN9783110962796.
Also available at the website of theQueens Library – This version does not include the footnotes visible in the Walter de Gruyter version.
Also available in Walravens, Hartmut, and Edmund King.Newspapers in international librarianship: papers presented by the section of the newspaper at IFLA General Conferences.K.G. Saur, 2003.ISBN3598218370,ISBN9783598218378.
.jpg)
_-_Flickr.jpg)
.svg)
![[icon]](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aWiki_letter_w_cropped.svg)
.jpg)
_-_ChangJiang_Road_(Middle)_(16668263526).jpg)
