Pyongyang is one of the oldest cities in Korea.[10] It was the capital of two ancient Korean kingdoms,Gojoseon andGoguryeo, and served as the secondary capital ofGoryeo. Following the establishment of North Korea in 1948, Pyongyang became itsde facto capital. The city was again devastated during theKorean War, but was quickly rebuilt after the war withSoviet assistance.
Pyongyang is the political, industrial and transport center of North Korea. It is estimated that 99% of those living in Pyongyang are members, candidate members, or dependents of members of the rulingWorkers' Party of Korea (WPK).[11] It is home to North Korea's majorgovernment institutions, as well as the WPK which has its headquarters in theGovernment Complex No. 1.
The name 'Pyongyang' derives from theSino-Korean words 平 (flat) and 壤 (land). It is theMcCune–Reischauer romanisation of the Korean term '평양', which translates to 'flat land', reflecting the smooth terrain of the city. In native Korean, the city was called "Buruna" (부루나)[12] or less commonly "Barana" (바라나)[13] which, using theidu system, was the pronunciation of the Chinese characters of "Pyongyang".[12][13] "Buru" (부루) means "field" whereas "na" (나) means "land", therefore the meaning of Pyongyang in native Korean would be "Land of the field".[12]
The city's other historic names includeRyugyong,[14]Kisong,Hwangsong,Rakrang,Sŏgyong,Sodo,Hogyong,Changan,[15] andHeijō[16][17] (duringJapanese rule in Korea). There are several variants.[b][32] During the early 20th century, Pyongyang came to be known among missionaries as being the "Jerusalem of the East", due to its historical status as a stronghold ofChristianity, namelyProtestantism, especially during thePyongyang Revival of 1907.[33][34]
AfterKim Il Sung's death in 1994, some members ofKim Jong Il's faction proposed changing the name of Pyongyang to "Kim Il Sung City" (Korean: 김일성시;Hanja: 金日成市), but others suggested that North Korea should begin callingSeoul "Kim Il Sung City" instead and grant Pyongyang the moniker "Kim Jong Il City". In the end, neither proposal was implemented.[35] In North Korea, Pyongyang is sometimes labeled as the "Capital of the Revolution" (혁명의 수도).[36]
In 1955, archaeologists excavated evidence of prehistoric dwellings in a large ancient village in the Pyongyang area, called Kŭmtan-ni, dating to theJeulmun andMumun pottery periods.[37] North Koreans associate Pyongyang with themythological city of "Asadal", orWanggeom-seong, the first second millennium BC capital ofGojoseon ("Old Joseon") according to Korean historiographies beginning with the 13th-centurySamguk yusa.
Pyongyang was, according to legend, founded in 1122 BC on the site of the capital of the legendary kingDangun.[10]Wanggeom-seong, which was in the location of Pyongyang, became the capital ofGojoseon from 194 to 108 BC. It fell in theHan conquest of Gojoseon in 108 BC.Emperor Wu of Han ordered four commanderies be set up, withLelang Commandery in the center and its capital established as "Joseon" (朝鮮縣, 조선현) at the location of Pyongyang. Several archaeological findings from the later,Eastern Han (20–220 AD) period in the Pyongyang area seems to suggest that Han forces later launched brief incursions around these parts.
The area around the city was called Nanglang during the earlyThree Kingdoms period. As the capital of Nanglang (낙랑국;樂浪國),[c] Pyongyang remained an important commercial and cultural outpost after the Lelang Commandery was destroyed by an expandingGoguryeo in 313.
Goguryeo moved its capital there in 427. According toChristopher Beckwith,Pyongyang is theSino-Korean reading of the name they gave it in their language:Piarna, or "level land".[38]
During theImjin War, Pyongyang was captured by the Japanese andheld the city wall until they were defeated in theSiege of Pyongyang.[10] Later in the 17th century, it became temporarily occupied during theQing invasion of Joseon until peace arrangements were made between Korea and Qing China. While the invasions made Koreans suspicious of foreigners, the influence ofChristianity began to grow after the country opened itself up to foreigners in the 16th century. Pyongyang became the base of Christian expansion in Korea. By 1880 it had more than 100 churches and more Protestant missionaries than any other Asian city,[10] and was called "theJerusalem of the East".[39]
In 1890, the city had 40,000 inhabitants.[40] It was the site of theBattle of Pyongyang during theFirst Sino-Japanese War, which led to the destruction and depopulation of much of the city.[41] It was the provincial capital of South Pyeongan Province beginning in 1896. During theJapanese colonial rule, Japan tried to develop the city as an industrial center, but faced theMarch First Movement in 1919 and severe anti-Japanese socialist movement in 1920s due to economic exploitation.[41][42][43][44] It was called Heijō (with the same Chinese characters平壤 but read asへいじょう) in Japanese.
In July 1931, the city experiencedanti-Chinese riots as a result of theWanpaoshan Incident and the sensationalized media reports about it which appeared in Imperial Japanese and Korean newspapers.[45]By 1938, Pyongyang had a population of 235,000.[40]
On 25 August 1945, theSoviet 25th Army entered Pyongyang and it became the temporary capital of theProvisional People's Committee for North Korea. A People's Committee was already established there, led by veteran Christian nationalistCho Man-sik.[46] Pyongyang became the de facto capital of North Korea upon its establishment in 1948. At the time, the Pyongyang government aimed to recapture Korea's official capital, Seoul.Pyongyang was again severely damaged in theKorean War, during which it wasbriefly occupied by South Korean forces from 19 October to 6 December 1950. The city saw many refugees evacuate when advancing Chinese forces pushed southward towards Pyongyang. UN forces oversaw the evacuation of refugees as they retreated from Pyongyang in December 1950.[47] In 1952, it was the target of the largest aerial raid of the entire war, involving 1,400 UN aircraft.
Already during the war, plans were made to reconstruct the city. On 27 July 1953 – the day the armistice between North Korea and South Korea was signed –The Pyongyang Review wrote: "While streets were in flames, an exhibition showing the general plan of restoration of Pyongyang was held at the Moranbong Underground Theater", the air raid shelter of the government underMoranbong. "On the way of victory... fireworks which streamed high into the night sky of the capital in a gun salute briefly illuminated the construction plan of the city which would rise soon with a new look".[48] After the war, the city was quickly rebuilt with assistance from theSoviet Union, and many buildings were built in the style ofStalinist architecture. The plans for the modern city of Pyongyang were first displayed for public viewing in a theatre building. Kim Jung-hee, one of the founding members of the Korean Architects Alliance, who had studied architecture inprewar Japan, was appointed by Kim Il Sung to design the city's master plan.Moscow Architectural Institute designed the "Pyongyang City Reconstruction and Construction Comprehensive Plan" in 1951, and it was officially adopted in 1953. The transformation into a modern, propaganda-designed city featuring Stalin-style architecture with a Korean-style arrangement (and other modernist architecture that was said to have been greatly influenced by Brazilian architectOscar Niemeyer) began.[49] The1972 Constitution officially declared Pyongyang the capital.[50] During Kim Il Sung's 1956 diplomatictour of the USSR, he was heavily inspired by Proto-Krushchyovka mass housing concepts introduced to him, which was urgently replicated in the fast-expanding region south of the Taedong. Soviet architectural influence re-emerged in the 1980s; the newly-built Kwangbok and Tongil Street apartments were of near-identical design toBrezhnevka.[51]
Thefuneral of Kim Il Sung was held in Pyongyang in 1994. Then on 19 July, it concluded with a cortege procession when his corpse moved through the streets with a hearse as people cried out in hysteria while watching the funeral.[52]
In 2001, North Korean authorities began a long-term modernisation programme. The Ministry of Capital City Construction Development was included in theCabinet in that year. In 2006, Kim Jong Il's brother-in-lawJang Song Thaek took charge of the ministry.
Throughout the rule ofKim Jong Un a number of residential projects were constructed. In 2012, Changjon Street,[53] a residential project with 2,784 units, was inaugurated in the heart of Pyongyang. 2013 and 2014 residential projects dedicated to scientists were completed in Unha Scientists Street and Wisong Scientists Street with more than 1,000 units each while in 2015 work took place on a residential project inMirae Scientists Street with 2,584 units. In 2017, in dedication to the105th birthday of thefounder and first leader,Kim Il Sung, 4,804 units were built in the newRyomyong Street complex. The second decade of the 2000s saw the construction of residential projects in Songhwa Street near theTaedonggang Brewing Company in Sadong District (2022), in Taephyong area in Mangyongdae district, and in the Pothong Riverside Terraced Residential District located at the city center next to the Pothong River on land previously used by the headquarters of theInternational Taekwon-Do Federation.[54] Kim Jong Un ordered that the residential district be renamed "Kyongru-dong" meaning "beautiful bead terrace".[55] From the 50s to the 70s the area was the location of the residence of Kim Il Sung and was known as "Mansion No. 5".[56] Other recent public building projects include theMansudae People's Theatre opened in 2012, theMunsu Water Park opened in 2013, and the renovated and expandedSunan International Airport andPyongyang Sci-Tech Complex, both completed in 2015,[57] the Samjiyon Orchestra Theater,[58] which was fitted out of the domed Korean People's Army Circus built in 1964, and thePyongyang General Hospital, of which construction started in 2020. Additional re-development projects occurred in the area around the Arch of Triumph where the Pyongyang People's Hospital no. 1 was demolished. Apartment blocks in the area of Inhŭng-dong, inMoranbong-guyok district and in the area of Sinwon-dong inPothonggang district were demolished[59] in 2018–2019 for the construction of new apartment buildings.[60] Also in 2018 the Youth Park Open-Air Theatre in Sungri Street, used to host political rallies, was rebuilt.[61] In 2021–2022 a major housing project was executed along Songhwa Street in southeast part of the city[62] Hwasong Street inHwasong District in northern Pyongyang with high-rises.[63] In 2023 phase two of construction of housing inHwasong district was launched, on the former territory of the Pyongyang Vegetable Science Institute. In addition, a complex ofgreenhouse farm and housing was initiated on the former territory ofKangdong Airfield which was demolished in 2019.[64]
In April 2024 the second stage of construction in the Hwasong area was completed in Rimhung Street with 10,000 apartments was marked with an extravagant ceremony.[65]
In 2025 a new residential district at Taesŏng-dong,Taesong-guyok, next toKorea Central Zoo came under construction.[66] Also in 2025 the last phase in the construction of the southern end of the Hwasong District occurred.[67]
Pyongyang is in the west-central part of North Korea; the city lies on a flat plain about 50 kilometres (31 mi) east of theKorea Bay, an arm of theYellow Sea. TheTaedong River flows southwestward through the city toward the Korea Bay. The Pyongyang plain, where the city is situated, is one of the two large plains on the Western coast of the Korean peninsula, the other being the Chaeryong plain. Both have an area of approximately 500 square kilometers.[68]
Pyongyang has ahot-summer continental monsoon climate (Köppen:Dwa), featuring warm to hot, humid summers and cold, dry winters.[69][70] Cold, dry winds can blow fromSiberia in winter, making conditions very cold; the low temperature is usually below freezing between November and early March, although the average daytime high is at least a few degrees above freezing in every month except January. The winter is generally much drier than summer, with snow falling for 37 days on average.
The transition from the cold, dry winter to the warm, wet summer occurs rather quickly between April and early May, and there is a similarly abrupt return to winter conditions in late October and November. Summers are generally hot and humid, with theEast Asian monsoon taking place from June until September; these are also the hottest months, with average temperatures of 21 to 25 °C (70 to 77 °F), and daytime highs often above 30 °C (86 °F). Although largely transitional seasons, spring and autumn experience more pleasant weather, with average high temperatures ranging from 20 to 26 °C (68 to 79 °F) in May and 22 to 27 °C (72 to 81 °F) in September,[71][72] coupled with relatively clear, sunny skies.[73][74]
Climate data for Pyongyang (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1961–present)
Pyongyang is also the seat of all major North Korean security institutions. The largest of them, theMinistry of Social Security, has 130,000 employees working in 12 bureaus. These oversee activities including: police services, security of party officials, classified documents, census, civil registrations, large-scale public construction,traffic control, fire safety,civil defence,public health andcustoms.[80] Another significant structure based in the city is theMinistry of State Security, whose 30,000 personnel manage intelligence, political prison systems, military industrial security and entry and exit management.[81]
The politics and management of the city is dominated by theWorkers' Party of Korea, as they are in the national level. The city is managed by the Pyongyang Party Committee of theWorkers' Party of Korea and its chairman is thede factomayor. The supreme standing state organ is the Pyongyang People's Committee, responsiblefor everyday events in support of the city. This includes following local Party guidance as channeled through the Pyongyang Party Committee, the distribution of resources prioritised to Pyongyang, and providing support to KWP and internal security agency personnel and families.
Panghyŏn-dong, a missile base, was administrated byKusong,North Pyongan Province. It had been transferred to the administration of P'yŏngyang on February 10, 2018.[86]
Panorama of Pyongyang, as seen from theJuche Tower in April 2012
After being destroyed during the Korean War, Pyongyang was entirely rebuilt according to Kim Il Sung's vision, which was to create a capital that would boost morale in the post-war years.[87] The result was a city with wide, tree-linedboulevards and public buildings with terraced landscaping,mosaics and decorated ceilings.[88] Its Soviet-style architecture makes it reminiscent of aSiberian city during winter snowfall, although edifices of traditional Korean design somewhat soften this perception. In summer, it is notable for its rivers, willow trees, flowers and parkland.[88]
Since the end of theKorean War the city was planned strictly according toSocialist principles.[89] According to the 1953 masterplan designed Kim Jung-hee the city was planned to reach one-million residents stretching from theTaedong River to thePothong River. The city center was planned as the main administrative district with main landscape structures constructed in between districts and are used as buffer zones so that they cannot expand freely.[89] The city center was planned with wide avenues and streets and monumental structures and forms the central administrative district where many government and public buildings are located including theGovernment Complex No 1, which houses the headquarters of the ruling party. Together with various monuments and memorials, it forms an important axis of symbolic places which promotes theIdeology of the Workers' Party of Korea andNorth Korean cult of personality aroundKim family with the epicentre andKilometre zero of the central district located atKim Il Sung Square.[90]
The 1953 masterplan set the basic layout from which the city's development was derived in the next decades with a unit district system which mixes residential and industrial zoning. Those districts are spread around the central administrative district and together with it they form the key axis of directionality for the city expansion. While in the 50s the major emphasis was placed on the reconstruction of Pyongyang from its ruins as carefully a socialist city in strict line with the masterplan, the 60s and 70s saw new wave of development which included expansion of the central boulevards, construction of high-density apartment buildings along the central boulevards, grandiose civic and cultural buildings and monumental statues and squares. This tendency included also the inclusion of traditionalKorean architecture for some buildings. While the development generally followed the 1953 master plan, it diverted from it in some aspects, such as the construction of high-rises along the central avenues, a step conflicted with the 1953 plan which called for more even distribution of the residential construction throughout the city in several multi-cores.[89] The 90s saw a relative slowdown in the development of the urban structure due to the deep economic crisis andfamine which swept through North Korea and led to thediversion of resources to the army. The 2010s and 2020s saw renewed efforts in urbanization and increasing density with the reconstruction of streets and avenues located further from the center and transformation of former rural parts of the city into high density residential districts.
The streets are laid out in a north–south, east–west grid, giving the city an orderly appearance.[88] North Korean designers applied the Swedish experience of self-sufficient urban neighbourhoods throughout the entire country, and Pyongyang is no exception. Its inhabitants are mostly divided into administrative units of 5,000 to 6,000 people (dong). These units all have similar sets of amenities including a food store, a barber shop, atailor, a public bathhouse, apost office, a clinic, a library and others. Many residents occupy high-rise apartment buildings.[91] One of Kim Il Sung's priorities while designing Pyongyang was to limit the population. Authorities maintain a restrictive regime of movement into the city, making it atypical ofEast Asia as it is silent, uncrowded and spacious.[92]
Structures in Pyongyang are divided into three major architectural categories: monuments, buildings with traditional Korean motifs and high-rises.[93] Some of North Korea's most recognisable landmarks are monuments, like theJuche Tower, theArch of Triumph and theMansu Hill Grand Monument. The first of them is a 170-meter (560 ft)granite spire symbolizing theJuche ideology. It was completed in 1982 and contains 25,550 granite blocks, one for each day of Kim Il Sung's life up to that point.[93] The most prominent building on Pyongyang's skyline isRyugyong Hotel,[93] theseventh highest building in the world terms of floor count, the tallest unoccupied building in the world,[94] and one of thetallest hotels in the world. It has yet to open.[95][96]
Pyongyang has a rapidly evolving skyline, dominated by high-rise apartment buildings. A construction boom began with the Changjon Street Apartment Complex, which was completed in 2012.[97] Construction of the complex began after late leaderKim Jong Il described Changjon Street as "pitiful".[98] Other housing complexes are being upgraded as well, but most are still poorly insulated, and lacking elevators and central heating.[99] An urban renewal program continued under Kim Jong Un's leadership, with the old apartments of the 1970s and '80s replaced by taller high rise buildings and leisure parks like theKaesong Youth Park, as well as renovations of older buildings.[100] In 2018, the city was described as unrecognizable compared to five years before.[101]
Pyongyang served as the provincial capital ofSouth Pyongan Province until 1946,[102] and Pyongyang cuisine shares the general culinary tradition of the Pyongan province. The most famous local food isPyongyang raengmyŏn, or also calledmul raengmyŏn or just simplyraengmyŏn.Raengmyŏn literally means "cold noodles", while the affixmul refers to water because the dish is served in a cold broth.Raengmyŏn consists of thin and chewy buckwheat noodles in a cold meat-broth withdongchimi (watery kimchi) and topped with a slice of sweetKorean pear.
Pyongyangraengmyŏn was originally eaten in homes built withondol (traditionalunderfloor heating) during the cold winter, so it is also called"Pyongyang deoldeori" (shivering in Pyongyang). Pyongyang locals sometimes enjoyed it as ahaejangguk, which is any type of food eaten as a hangover cure, usually a warm soup.[103]
Another representative Pyongyang dish,Taedonggang sungeoguk, translates as "flathead grey mullet soup from theTaedong River". The soup featuresflathead grey mullet (abundant in the Taedong River) along with black peppercorns and salt.[104] Traditionally, it has been served to guests visiting Pyongyang. Therefore, there is a common saying, "How good was the trout soup?", which is used to greet people returning from Pyongyang. Another local specialty,Pyongyang onban (literally "warm rice of Pyongyang") comprises freshly cooked rice topped with sliced mushrooms, chicken, and a couple ofbindaetteok (pancakes made from ground mung beans and vegetables).[103]
In 2018, there were many high-quality restaurants in Pyongyang with Korean and international food, and imported alcoholic beverages.[101] Famous restaurants includeOkryu-gwan and Ch'ongryugwan.[105] Somestreet foods exist in Pyongyang, where vendors operatefood stalls.[106] Foreign foods like hamburgers, fries, pizza, and coffee are easily found.[101] There is an active nightlife with late-night restaurants and karaoke.[101]
The city has water parks,amusement parks, skating rinks, health clubs, a shooting range, and a dolphinarium.[100]
Central Pyongyang with the newly built Changjon Apartment Complex. TheRyugyong Hotel andOkryu Bridge are in the background
Pyongyang is North Korea's industrial center.[10] Thanks to the abundance of natural resources likecoal,iron andlimestone, as well as good land and water transport systems, it was the first industrial city to emerge in North Korea after the Korean War. Light and heavy industries are both present and have developed in parallel. Heavy manufactures includecement, industrial ceramics,[41] munitions and weapons, but mechanical engineering remains the core industry. Light industries in Pyongyang and its vicinity includetextiles, footwear and food, among others.[41] Special emphasis is put on the production and supply of fresh produce and subsidiary crops in farms on the city's outskirts. Other crops includerice,sweetcorn andsoybeans. Pyongyang aims to achieve self-sufficiency in meat production. High-density facilities raise pigs, chicken and other livestock.[10]
Until the late 2010s Pyongyang still experienced frequent shortages of electricity.[108] To solve this problem, two power stations – Huichon Power Stations 1 and 2 – were built inChagang Province and supply the city through direct transmission lines. A second phase of the power expansion project was launched in January 2013, consisting of a series of small dams along theChongchon River. The first two power stations have a maximum generating capacity of 300 megawatts (MW), while the 10 dams to be built under second phase are expected to generate about 120 MW.[108] In addition, the city has several existing or plannedthermal power stations. These include Pyongyang TPS with a capacity of 500 MW, East Pyongyang TPS with a capacity of 50 MW, and Kangdong TPS which is under construction.[109]
Pyongyang is home to several large department stores including thePothonggang Department Store,Pyongyang Department Store No. 1, Pyongyang Department Store No. 2, Kwangbok Department Store, Ragwon Department Store, Pyongyang Station Department Store, and the Pyongyang Children's Department Store.[110]
The city also has Hwanggumbol Shop, a chain of state-owned convenience stores supplying goods at prices cheaper than those in thejangmadang markets. Hwanggumbol Shops are specifically designed to control North Korea's expanding markets by attracting consumers and guaranteeing the circulation of money in government-operated stores.[111]
Pyongyang is the main transport hub of the country: it has a network of roads, railways and air routes which link it to both foreign and domestic destinations. It is the starting point of inter-regional highways reaching Nampo, Wonsan and Kaesong.[10]Pyongyang railway station serves the main railway lines, including thePyongui Line and thePyongbu Line. Regular international rail services toBeijing, the Chinese border city ofDandong andMoscow are also available.
A rail journey to Beijing takes about 25 hours and 25 minutes (K27 from Beijing/K28 from Pyongyang, on Mondays, Wednesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays); a journey to Dandong takes about 6 hours (daily); a journey to Moscow takes six days. The city also connects to theEurasian Land Bridge via theTrans-Siberian Railway. Ahigh-speed rail link to Wonsan is planned.[112]
TheMetro,tram andtrolleybus systems are used mainly by commuters as a primary means of urban transportation.[10] Cycle lanes were introduced on main thoroughfares in July 2015.[113] There are relatively fewcars in the city. Cars are a symbol of status in the country due to their scarcity as a result of restrictions on import because of international sanctions and domestic regulations.[114] Some roads are also reported to be in poor condition.[115] However, by 2018, Pyongyang had begun to experience traffic jams.[101]
Kim Il Sung University, North Korea's oldest university, was established in 1946.[10] It has 21 faculties, 4 research institutes, and 10 other university units.[118][119][120] These include the primary medical education and health personnel training unit, the medical college; a physics faculty which covers a range of studies includingtheoretical physics, optical science,geophysics andastrophysics;[121] an atomic energy institute and the largest law firm in the country (Ryongnamsan Law Office).[122] Kim Il Sung University also has its own publishing house, sports club (Ryongnamsan Sports Club),[123] revolutionary museum, nature museum, libraries, a gym, indoor swimming pool and educator apartment houses. Its four main buildings were completed in 1965 (Building 1), 1972 (Building 2), and 2017 (Buildings 3 and 4).[124][125][126]
Sosong-guyok hosts a 20MeVcyclotron called MGC-20. The initial project was approved by theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1983 and funded by the IAEA, the United States and the North Korean government. The cyclotron was ordered from theSoviet Union in 1985 and constructed between 1987 and 1990. It is used for student training, production of medical isotopes fornuclear medicine as well as studies in biology, chemistry and physics.[130]
Medical centers include the Red Cross Hospital, the First People's Hospital which is located near Moran Hill and was the first hospital to be built in North Korea after theliberation of Korea in 1945,[131] the Second People's Hospital, Ponghwa Recuperative Center (also known asBonghwa Clinic or Presidential Clinic) located in Sokam-dong,Potonggang-guyok, 1.5 km (1 mi) northwest ofKim Il Sung Square,[132][unreliable source?] Pyongyang Medical School Hospital, Namsan Treatment Center which is adjacent[133]Pyongyang's Maternity Hospital, Taesongsan General Hospital,[134] Kim Man-yoo Hospital, Staff Treatment Center and Okryu Children's Hospital. A new hospital namedPyongyang General Hospital began construction in Pyongyang in 2020.[135]
^Funabashi, Yoichi (2007).The Peninsula Question: A Chronicle of the Second Northern Korean Nuclear Crisis. Washington, DC:Brookings Institution Press. p. 50.ISBN978-0-8157-3010-1.
^Funabashi, Yōichi (2007).The peninsula question : a chronicle of the second Korean nuclear crisis. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.ISBN978-0-8157-3011-8.OCLC290569447.
^abBlunden, Caroline (1998)."Gazetteer".Cultural Atlas of China (Revised ed.).Facts on File. pp. 232, 235.ISBN0-8160-3814-7.LCCN98-34322.OCLC43168341.: "Names initalics represent the Wade-Giles equivalent of the preceding Pinyin transcription....Pingrang/P'ing-jang see Pyongyang"
^Lankov, Andrei (16 March 2005)."North Korea's missionary position".Asia Times Online. Archived from the original on 18 March 2005. Retrieved25 January 2013.By the early 1940s Pyongyang was by far the most Protestant of all major cities of Korea, with some 25–30% of its adult population being church-going Christians. In missionary circles this earned the city the nickname "Jerusalem of the East".
^Caryl, Christian (15 September 2007)."Prayer in Pyongyang".The Daily Beast. The Newsweek/Daily Beast Co. Archived fromthe original on 23 May 2012. Retrieved25 January 2013.It's hard to say how many covert Christians the North has; estimates range from the low tens of thousands to 100,000. Christianity came to the peninsula in the late 19th century. Pyongyang, in fact, was once known as the 'Jerusalem of the East.'
^National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage. 2001. Geumtan-ri.Hanguk Gogohak Sajeon [Dictionary of Korean Archaeology], pp. 148–149. NRICH, Seoul.ISBN89-5508-025-5
^Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009).Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. p. 104.ISBN978-0-691-13589-2.
^Schinz, Alfred; Eckart, Dege (1990). "Pyongyang-Ancient and Modern – the Capital of North Korea".GeoJournal.22 (1): 25.doi:10.1007/BF02428536.S2CID153574542.
^Corfield, Justin (2013)."Sister Cities".Historical Dictionary of Pyongyang. London: Anthem Press. p. 196.ISBN978-0-85728-234-7.Archived from the original on 18 February 2023. Retrieved22 October 2017.
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