ThePuṣṭimārga, also known asPushtimarg (Path of Nourishing or Flourishing) orVallabha Sampradāya, is asect within theVaishnavism tradition ofHinduism. It was established in the early 16th century byVallabha (1479–1530) and further developed by his descendants, particularly Viṭṭhalanātha. Followers of the Puṣṭimārga worshipKr̥ṣṇa and engage in devotional practices centered around the youthful Kr̥ṣṇa as depicted in theBhāgavata Purāṇa, and the pastimes atGovardhan Hill.[1][2][3]
The Puṣṭimārga sect follows theŚuddhadvaita philosophy of Vallabha. According to this philosophy, Kr̥ṣṇa is considered the supreme deity and the source of everything. The human soul is believed to be imbued with Kr̥ṣṇa'sdivine light, and spiritual liberation is thought to result from Kr̥ṣṇa's grace.[4] The sect worships Kr̥ṣṇa throughsevā, a practice in which his idols are served and entertained with food, drink, music, and art, recreating his daily routine as a youth inBraj.
The followers of this tradition are known as Pushtimargis[5] or Pushtimargiya Vaishnavas.[6] This sect is prominent in the Indian states ofRajasthan andGujarat, as well as in their regionaldiasporas around the world.[1][7] TheShrinathji Temple inNathdwara is the main shrine of Pushtimarg, with its origins dating back to 1669.[7][8]
Vallabha was born into a TeluguBrahmin family in South India.[9] He received a traditional education in Sanskrit scriptures and was a precocious student.[10][11][12] In 1494, around the age of 15, he had a vision in which he acquired theBrahmasambandha mantra from Kr̥ṣṇa which was to be used to clean the faults of the human soul. He first bestowed the mantra on Dāmodardās Harsānī who would become the first member of the Puṣṭimārga.[10][13] When he went toGovardhan Hill he declared that the stone being worshipped as Devadamana was thesvarūpa ofŚrī Nāthajī and instituted the formalsevā of the deity.[10][13] He adopted the householder form of life and had two sons, Gopīnātha and Viṭṭhalanātha.[10][14] Throughout his life he made three pilgrimage tours of India where he won converts mainly from the Gangetic plain and Gujarat, with converts tending to belong to mercantile or agricultural castes to whom Vallabha's ideals of socio-religious purity were appealing.[15] He died in 1530, designating his elder son Gopīnātha as his successor.[10]
In 1540, theGauḍiya priests of Śrī Nāthajī, whom Vallabha hired, were expelled from Govardhan Hill which gave the Puṣṭimārga sole control over the deity's worship.[16][17] In 1542, Gopīnātha died with his son soon dying as well, leaving Viṭṭhalanātha as the leader of the Puṣṭimārga.[18][19] From 1543 to 1581 Viṭṭhalanātha went on fundraising tours to Gujarat where he converted many merchants, agriculturalists, and artisans. He also successfully obtained the royal Hindu and Mughal patronage for the sect.[20][21][22] He heavily transformed the simplesevā of his father's time into a deeply aesthetic experience that sought to recreate the daily life of Kr̥ṣṇa in which he was offered expensive clothing, jewelry, perfumes, and sumptuous meals. The arts of paintings and poetry were also added to the rituals to enhance their appeal.[23] Upon Viṭṭhalanātha's death the spiritual leadership of the sect was divided among his seven sons among whom he had distributed the majorsvarūpas of Kr̥ṣṇa and granted the sole right to bestow thebrahmasambandhamantra, that is, to initiate new members.[24][25][26] Thus, the Puṣṭimārga was divided into Seven Houses (Sāt Ghar) or Seven Seats (Sāt Gaddī), with all patrilineal male descendants of Vallabha having these rights. These descendants have the titles ofmahārājā (Great King) orgosvāmi (Lord of Cows), and the chiefmahārāja of the First House has the title oftilkāyat and isprimus inter pares.[24][25][26][27]
Viṭṭhalanātha's sons continued obtaining patronage of the sect from Mughal emperors. Viṭṭhalanātha's sonGokulanātha authored many texts in Sanskrit and particularly inBraj Bhasha, which reemphasized the themes of Vallabha's works in a more accessible language.[28] Gokulanātha is considered the most prominent Puṣṭimārga figure of the era, and according to sectarian sources he defended the sect's right to wear their sectariantilaks andmala beads made fromtulsi from a Shaiva-Tantric ascetic named Jadrup who exerted significant influence over the Mughal emperorJahangir.[29]
In the early 1600s, the houses had a dispute over the rights to perform worship to Śrī Nāthajī, and Jahangir sided withTilkāyat Viṭṭhalarāy that the First House held precedence over the others.[30] The Third and Sixth Houses were also in conflict through the century over the worship of the deity Bālakr̥ṣṇa, resulting the exodus of both Houses from Braj to Gujarat.[31][32] The Third House eventually moved to the region ofMewar in Rajasthan where they were welcomed by the kings and granted refuge. In Braj, theJāṭ rebellion under the reign of EmperorAurangzeb caused many religious communities, including the remaining houses of the Puṣṭimārga, to flee to Rajasthan where they received protection. The First House, who was the custodian of Śrī Nāthajī, settled in a village in Mewar that would become Nāthadvārā.[33][34]
From their arrival in Rajasthan in the late 17th century to the late 19th century, Puṣṭimārgagosvāmīs served both as thegurus andjāgīrdārs of theMewardarbār. The Mewar kingdom, which had defied the Mughal empire, sought to promote an image of themselves as protectors of Hindudharma through their pre-existing theological committment to and patronage of the Puṣṭimārga; in addition they sought to boost their economy through the pilgrimage traffic of the mercantile Gujarati Vaiṣṇava devotees. The Puṣṭimārgagosvāmīs in turn enjoyed the religious and financial support of the Mewar kingdom. Themahārājas became wealthy landowners who received state protection and privileges through their nobleRajput contacts and donations from Gujarati merchant devotees/[35]
The 1862Maharaj Libel Case, in which amahārājā from Surat named Jadunath Brizratanji sued the journalistKarsandas Mulji on charges of libel in theSupreme Court of Bombay, was widely publicized. In the paperSatya Prakāśa, Mulji had called theVallabha Sampradāya a degenerate sect with false doctrines, and accused itsmahārājās (including Jadunath Brizratanji specifically by name) of forcing female devotees to have sexual relations with them. The British judges sided with Mulji, and the Puṣṭimārga's reputation was tainted, and the sect was viewed negatively by Western scholars until the late 20th century.[10]
According to Pocock, the Pushtimarg was at its height in the late 19th century.[36]
The tenure ofTilakāyat Govardhanalāl (tilkāyat from 1876 to 1934) is often described as the "golden age" of both Nathdwara and the Puṣṭimārga.[37]
In the 20th century, the Pushtimarg prospered due to the acquired affluence of some of its members, primarily Gujarati merchants. The Gujarati diaspora founded important Pushtimarg centers in theUnited States,Canada, theUnited Kingdom,Australia, andNew Zealand.[38]
In the 21st century, the sect is not very well known in India. Since the latter half of the 20th century, themahārājās no longer have the same level of religious and secular authority over their followers, and they are much more restrained in their public presence. While devotee families include those of great wealth, they do not draw attention to themselves either. The Puṣṭimārga does not actively seek converts in modern times.[10][39]
According to Vallabha, the society of his time was ridden with ills such as bloodshed, barbarians, foreigners, the departing of gods from temples, an impureGanges river, the presence of heterodox communities, ineffective religious rites, the disappearance of thecaste system, and the prevalence of greed, hypocrisy, and impurity. In response, Vallabha formulated the philosophy ofŚuddhādvaita, in opposition to theĀdvaita Vedānta ofŚaṅkara, which he calledMaryādā Mārga or Path of Limitations. Vallabha rejected the concept ofMāyā, stating that the world was a manifestation of the Supreme Absolute and could not be tainted, nor could it change.[40] According to Vallabha,Brahman consists of existence (sat), consciousness (cit), and bliss (ānanda), and manifests completely as Kr̥ṣṇa himself.[41] In this philosophy, Kr̥ṣṇa, asBrahman, is considered the supreme and sole being, and that Brahma, Śiva, and Viṣṇu are his limited avatāras.[42]
Vallabha states if someone forgets this truth about Kr̥ṣṇa and his nature, it is due to ignorance derived from material attachments. For certain individuals however this ignorance can be removed through divine grace (puṣṭi) that would move one to a path of devotion where one would rely on Kr̥ṣṇa's grace alone. Such people are admitted into the Path of Grace or Puṣṭimārga.[40]
The purpose of this tradition is to performsevā (selfless service) out of love for Kr̥ṣṇa. According to Saha, Vallabha stated that through single minded religiosity, a devotee would achieve awareness that there is nothing in the world that is not Kr̥ṣṇa.[40] According to Barz, inŚuddhādvaita the concept ofuddhāra or lifting ajīva out of ignorance is granted solely through the grace of Kr̥ṣṇa who may have seemingly unknowable reasoning. He further states that in Śuddhādvaita philosophyuddhāra may be granted to anyjīva regardless of sectarian membership in the Puṣṭimārga or conduction of sevā, rather it is granted solely through Kr̥ṣṇa's independent will.[43]
Vallabha stated that religious disciplines that focus on Vedic sacrifices, temple rituals,puja, meditation, and yoga had limited value. The school rejects the ascetic lifestyle and instead cherishes the householder lifestyle, wherein followers see themselves as participants and companions of Kr̥ṣṇa, and their daily life as an ongoingraslila.[4]
Vallabha accepts four prior works as the major bases for his doctrines: theVedas, theBhagavad Gītā, theBrahma Sūtra, and theBhāgavata Purāṇa.[44] However, in practice the Vedas are not studied, whereas theBhagavad Gītā andBhāgavata Purāṇa are.[45] Vallabha composed many philosophical and devotional books during his lifetime including:[10]
Later figures authored prose texts inBraj Bhasha in thevārtā genre. The progenitor of thevārtā tradition was Vallabha's grandson,Gokulnāth, and Gokulnāth's grandnephew, Harirāy (1590–1715). The prosevārtās served as hagiographies about Vallabha, Viṭṭhalanātha, and their disciples, that could educate everyday devotees in Puṣṭimārga doctrine.[46]
In terms of volume, Harirāy has the greatest literary output of the sect. There are hundreds of Sanskrit and Braj Bhasha prose works attributed to him, and over a thousand Braj Bhasha poems under various pen names. Pauwels and Bachrach compare Harirāy toVyāsa of thePuranic tradition, to whom texts are by default attributed.[47][48]
TheCaurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā (the most notablevārtā text) details the accounts of 84 Vaiṣṇava devotees of the Puṣṭimārga who were disciples of Vallabhācārya. Complementing the text is theDo Sau Bāvan Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā by the same authors detailing the lives of 252 disciples of Viṭṭhalanātha. Gokulnāth is credited as the original collector of these accounts but they were likely not written down but rather collections of his discourses. His grandnephew Harirāy is credited as the final editor of the two texts. TheCaurāsī Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā exists in tworecensions, one without commentary and one with commentary written by Harirāy. The version with commentary is called theTīn Janma kī Līlā and generally contains more episodes but is more concise than the version without commentary.[10][49] TheDo Sau Bāvan Vaiṣṇavan kī Vārtā was more likely composed by Harirāy's disciples and was completed at the end of the 17th century.[50]
Harirāy is also the attributed author of the Braj Bhasha textŚrī Nāthajī Prākaṭya kī Vārtā which recounts the history of Śrīnāthajī from thesvarūpa's appearance on Govardhan Hill until its removal to Nathadwara in 1672.[10][49] Harirāy's authorship of this text is doubted, and the current text may only date to the 19th century.[51][52] TheNijavārta andŚrī Ācāryajī ke Prākaṭya Vārta describe the life of Vallabha, while theBaiṭhaka Caritra[53] describes Vallabha's travels around India. All three are dated to the 19th century.[54] TheBhāvasindhu recounts information about the followers of Vallabha and Viṭṭhalanātha, while Viṭṭhalanātha has his ownNijavārta andBaiṭhaka Caritra.[55]
Another important text is theVallabhākhyān, a Gujarati poem by Gopāḷdās (a devotee of Viṭṭhalanātha) composed before 1577 that praises the family of Vallabha, and was one of the earliest texts to establish the divinity of Vallabha, Viṭṭhalanātha, and their descendants.[56]
The formal initiation into the Pushtimarg is through the administration of theBrahmasambandha mantra. The absolute and exclusive rights to grant this mantra, in order to remove thedoṣas (faults) of ajīva (soul) lie only with the direct male descendants of Vallabhācārya. According to Vallabha, he received theBrahmasambandha mantra from Kr̥ṣṇa one night in Gokula. The next morning, Vallabha administered the mantra to Damodaradāsa Harasānī, who would become the first member of thesampradāya.[10][57]
In Vallabhācārya's time, an (adult) devotee to-be would ask Vallabha to admit him, and if Vallabha was willing to take the potential devotee, he would ask him to bathe and return. Vallabha would then administer the mantra, asking the devotee to use Kr̥ṣṇa's name and to devotee everything he had to Kr̥ṣṇa, after which Vallabha would begin the spiritual education on doctrines and texts.[10][57]
In modern times, the majority of members of the sect are born into Pushtimarg families, with the administration of the mantra split into two ceremonies.[10][57]
The first ceremony is known asśaraṇa mantropadeśa (or traditionally asnāma lenā andkaṇṭhī lenā). This occurs in the initiate's infancy or at any age if requested. The guru has the initiate repeat theaṣṭākṣara mantra ("śrī Kṛṣṇaḥ śaraṇaṃ mama") 3 times. The initiate is then given akaṇṭhī made oftulasi.[58]
The second ceremony is known asBrahma-sambandha (a state of union withKṛṣṇa). This usually occurs before the initiate is married or as soon as they are considered mature enough to understand the significance of the ceremony. The initiate is made to fast the day prior, bathe, hold a tulasi leaf in the palm of the right hand and repeat theĀtmanivedana-mantra mantra[note 1] after the guru. After this, the initiate places thetulasi leaf at the feet of the image ofKṛṣṇa.[63] After this he or she is considered a proper member of thesampradāya. The mantra and initiation may only be performed by the direct male descendants of Vallabha.[10][57]
Viṭṭhalanātha had seven sons among whom he distributed nine majorsvarūpas of Kr̥ṣṇa that are worshipped by the Puṣṭimārga. Each son founded a lineage that served as leaders of each house or seat of thesampradāya. The sons of Viṭṭhalanātha, the svarūpas, and where they currently reside are:[24][25][26][27]
The ninesvarūpas listed in Puṣṭimārga theology are consideredsvayambhu (self-born),sevya-svarūpa (having been offeredsevā by Vallabha and Viṭṭhalanātha), andnava-nīdhi (nine receptacles of treasure).[64]
The eldestgosvāmi of the First House (descendants of Giridhara) holds the title oftilakāyat, and is the custodian of Śrī Nāthajī. Thetilakāyat is considered the highest authority in the Puṣṭimārga.[65][66][67]
Yadunātha's descendants also hold Śrī Kalyāṇarāijī (Baroda, Gujarat) and Śrī Mukundarāyajī (Vārāṇasī, Uttar Pradesh).[24][68]
The eighth house was founded by Tulasīdāsa, also known as Lālajī, whose descendants hold Śrī Gopināthajī (Br̥ndābana, Uttar Pradesh, until 1947 inḌerāgāzīkhāṁ, Sindh). Tulasīdāsa was an adopted son of Viṭṭhalanātha, and thesvarūpa in his descendants' possession is less significant than the othersvarūpas.[24][69]
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The dailysevā anddarśana periods are meant to portray a day in the life ofKr̥ṣṇa Gopāla, or Kr̥ṣṇa as Cow-protector. In the Pushtimarg,sevā is the unselfish worship of asvarūpa, under the doctrine that thesvarūpa is sentient and appreciates refined food, clothing, and the arts. The themes of thesevā are based on thelīlās (pastimes or play) of Kr̥ṣṇa as depicted in theBhāgavata Purāṇa. Based on thelīlā, appropriate pure and high quality food and clothing are offered to thesvarūpa. Thesvarūpa is entertained by singers and poets, with paintings calledpichvaīs being placed in the background to enhance thebhāva ("emotion") of thesevā.[10]
Throughsevā, members of thesampradāya are meant to experiencebhāva in order to understand therasa (essence) of Kr̥ṣṇa'slīlās, through which a devotee experiences unselfish love for Kr̥ṣṇa.Sevā occurs privately in the home, but communalsevā in ahaveli is also an important aspect.[10] According to Barz, in the Puṣṭimārga, the icons of Kr̥ṣṇa are installed not in temples (mandir) but in mansions (havelī). Ho disagrees and states the temples have always been calledmandirs, nothavelis.[70] Eachmandir/havelī is considered to be the private dwelling of Kr̥ṣṇa and entrance is only granted at appointeddarśana times.[71]
There are four main types ofbhāva:dāsya,sakhya,madhura, and most importantlyvātsalya.Vātsalya bhāva treats Kr̥ṣṇa as if he were a child and the devotee is his caring mother or father. Specifically, devotees aim to model Yashoda, imparting tender love and concern to Kr̥ṣṇa. Thisbhāva manifests in acts ofsevā through providing toys and blankets, and cooling Kr̥ṣṇa's meals before serving them.[72]Madhura bhāva places the devotee in the role of agopī (cowherd-girl of Braj) who takes part in the love-play of Kr̥ṣṇa'slīlās in the nighttime.Sakhya bhāva places the devotee in the role ofgopa (cowherd) as a friend of Kr̥ṣṇa's who takes part in games and cow herding activities in the daytime.Dāsya bhāva treats the devotee as a humble servant of Kr̥ṣṇa as a king who praises his master while demeaning himself. Thisbhāva has less presence in the Puṣṭimārga as Vallabha put a greater emphasis on the personal and emotional relationship on the first threebhāvas.[73]
Baithak, literally "seat", is a site where a prominent Puṣṭimārga figure had taken a seat. These sites are spread across India but they are chiefly concentrated in Braj region in Uttar Pradesh and in western state of Gujarat. There are manyBaithaks that are considered sacred; 84 connected to Vallabha, 28 to Viṭṭhalanātha, 4 to Giridhara, 13 to Gokulanātha, 1 each to Raghunātha and Ghanaśyāma, 7 to Harirāya, 2 to Dāmodaradāsa Harasānī, and 2 to Śrī Nāthajī. There also exist 10caraṇa caukīs or pedastals on which Śrī Nāthajī was placed when being taken from Govardhana to Nathdwara.[74][75]
Members of the Puṣṭimārga participate in the largest circumambulation of theBraj region called thebaṛī yātrā. The pilgrimage lasts between six to seven weeks with several thousand participants and is led by a Maharaj. The pilgrimage starts inMathura, and then travels toJatipura (Govardhan),Kaman,Vrindavan,Barsana,Gokul, and other towns. The pilgrims are accompanied by pilgrimage priests calledChaubes.[76]
In the Puṣṭimārga, several festivals are celebrated includingHolī,Kr̥ṣṇa Janmāṣṭamī,Nāgapañcamī, andAnnakūṭa. On festival days, thesevā is designed to match thebhāva of the holiday.[10]
Music plays a key role insevā in the form ofkīrtans. Theaṣṭachāp, or group of eight poets who composedBraj Bhasha devotional poetry (kīrtans) are revered in the sect. According to sectarian sources, the eight poets were Kumbhanadāsa,Sūradāsa, Nandadāsa, Paramānandadāsa, Kr̥ṣṇadāsa, Caturbhujadāsa, Govindasvāmī, and Chītasvāmī.[10][77] The most famous of the eight is Sūradāsa, whose relationship with the Puṣṭimārga is most tenuous, and some of the other members also had historically unclear relations to the sect.[78]
In modern times, the musical liturgy contains nearly ten thousandpadas by thirty to forty poets including theaṣṭachāp. Thekīrtans are categorized into five major groups:Nitya (daily),Utsav (festival),Baddhāī (good wishes [used for birthdays]),Malhār (rainy season), andDhamār (spring).[79]
In Gujarat,lay devotees sing songs in thedhoḷ tradition. Thedhoḷ originated as form of non-sectarian Gujarati folk song that later became identified with Vaishnavism as well as the Vallabhite sect in particular. In modern times, Mallison observed that only among the Vallabhans is thedhoḷ likely to survive. They are sung only by lay Gujarati devotees, particularly women, and are not part of the formal temple Braj liturgy. The authors ofdhoḷs are generally not well known in literary circles except forDayārām.[80]
The Puṣṭimārga has the general reputation of having most of its followers in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and Mumbai. However, the sect also has a large presence in Delhi, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh. Prior to thePartition of India, there were also followers in Sindh and (West) Punjab who have since migrated to Delhi, Gujarat, and Maharashtra. The region ofBraj is theologically the most important region and the homeland of the sect. There also exist outposts of the sect in eastern India, namelyVaranasi and Champaranya. There is no presence of the sect in South India.[81]
The followers in Gujarat usually belong to theBhatia,Lohana,Bania,Marwari,Kanbi/Patidar Patel (elite sections), and higher artisan castes (e.g.Soni,Kansara,Kayasth), almost all of whom reside in urban areas.[82] There are only a small number of Gujarati Brahmins, mainly Shastris, who study and expound upon sectarian texts and perform specialized rituals. In sectarian temples, the Mukhiyas (chief priests), cooks, and water-carriers are all Brahmins from a handful of subcastes (Audichya,Girnara, andSachora).[83] According to Shah these Brahmins are initiated into the sect. However it has been observed that many hired Brahminsevaks in havelis are only nominally followers of the Puṣṭimārga and actually follow other local traditions.[84][85]
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