ThePuritans were EnglishProtestants in the 16th and 17th centuries who sought to rid theChurch of England of what they considered to beRoman Catholic practices, maintaining that the Church of England had not been fully reformed and should become more Protestant.[1] Puritanism played a significant role in English andearly American history, especially inthe Protectorate inGreat Britain, and the earlier settlement ofNew England.
Puritans were dissatisfied with the limited extent of theEnglish Reformation and with the Church of England's toleration of certain practices associated with the Catholic Church. They formed and identified with various religious groups advocating greaterpurity of worship anddoctrine, as well as personal and corporatepiety. Puritans adopted acovenant theology, and in that sense they wereCalvinists (as were many of their earlier opponents). Inchurch polity, Puritans were divided between supporters ofepiscopal,presbyterian, andcongregational types. Some believed a uniform reform of theestablished church was called for to create a godly nation, while others advocatedseparation from, or the end of, any established state church entirely in favour of autonomousgathered churches, called-out from the world. TheseSeparatist andIndependents became more prominent in the 1640s, when the supporters of a presbyterian polity in theWestminster Assembly were unable to forge a new Englishnational church.
By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to theroyal prerogative, and with theScottish Presbyterians with whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of theFirst English Civil War (1642–1646).
Puritanism was never a formally defined religious division within Protestantism, and the termPuritan itself was rarely used after the turn of the 18th century.Congregationalist Churches, widely considered to be a part of theReformed tradition of Christianity, are descended from the Puritans.[3][4] Moreover, Puritan beliefs are enshrined in theSavoy Declaration, theconfession of faith held by the Congregationalist churches.[5] Some Puritan ideals, including the formal rejection of Roman Catholicism, were incorporated into the doctrines of theChurch of England, themother church of the worldwideAnglican Communion.
In the 17th century, the wordPuritan was a term applied not to just one group but to many. Historians still debate a precise definition of Puritanism.[6] Originally,Puritan was a pejorative term characterizing certain Protestant groups as extremist.Thomas Fuller, in hisChurch History, dates the first use of the word to 1564. ArchbishopMatthew Parker of that time used it andprecisian with a sense similar to the modernstickler.[7] Puritans, then, were distinguished for being "more intensely protestant than their protestant neighbors or even the Church of England".[8] As a term of abuse,Puritan was not used by Puritans themselves. Those referred to asPuritan called themselves terms such as "the godly", "saints", "professors", or "God's children"; they had a "passion for their truth" which was, according toMatthew Arnold, a "sort of cast iron product, rigid, definite and complete".[9][10][11]
"Non-separating Puritans" were dissatisfied with theReformation of the Church of England but remained within it, advocating for further reform; they disagreed among themselves about how much further reformation was possible or even necessary. Others, who were later termed "Nonconformists", "Separatists", or "separating Puritans", thought theChurch of England was so corrupt that true Christians should separate from it altogether. In its widest historical sense, the termPuritan includes both groups.[12][13]
Puritans should not be confused with other radical Protestant groups of the 16th and 17th centuries, such asQuakers,Seekers, andFamilists, who believed that individuals could be directly guided by theHoly Spirit. The latter denominations give precedence todirect revelation over theBible.[14]
In current English,puritan often means "against pleasure". In such usage,hedonism andpuritanism areantonyms.[15]William Shakespeare described the vain, pompous killjoyMalvolio inTwelfth Night as "a kind of Puritan".[16]H. L. Mencken archly defined Puritanism as "the haunting fear that someone, somewhere, may be happy."[17] Puritans embraced sexuality but placed it in the context of marriage.Peter Gay writes that the Puritans' standard reputation for "dour prudery" was a "misreading that went unquestioned in the nineteenth century". He said they were in favour of married sexuality, and opposed the Catholic veneration ofvirginity (associated with the Virgin Mary), citingEdward Taylor andJohn Cotton.[18] One Puritan settlement in western Massachusetts banished a husband because he refused to fulfill his sexual duties to his wife.[19]
Puritanism had a historical importance over a period of a century, followed by fifty years of development in New England. It changed character and emphasis nearly decade by decade over that time.
Many English Protestants—especially those formerMarian exiles returning to England to work as clergy and bishops—considered the settlement merely the first step in reforming England's church.[21] The years of exile during theMarian Restoration had exposed them to the practices of theContinental Reformed churches. The most impatient clergy began introducing reforms within their local parishes. The initial conflict between Puritans and the authorities included instances of nonconformity, such as omitting parts of the liturgy to allow more time for the sermon and singing ofmetrical psalms. Some Puritans refused to bow on hearing the name of Jesus, or to make thesign of the cross in baptism, or to usewedding rings or the organ.
Yet, the main complaint Puritans had was the requirement that clergy wear the whitesurplice andclerical cap.[22] Puritan clergymen preferred to wearblack academic attire. During thevestments controversy, church authorities attempted and failed to enforce the use of clerical vestments. While never a mass movement, the Puritans had the support and protection of powerful patrons in the aristocracy.[23]
In the 1570s, the primary dispute between Puritans and the authorities was over the appropriate form of church government. Many Puritans believed that the Church of England should follow the example of Reformed churches in other parts of Europe and adoptpresbyterian polity, under which government bybishops would be replaced with government byelders.[24] But all attempts to enact further reforms throughParliament were blocked by the Queen. Despite such setbacks, Puritan leaders such asJohn Field andThomas Cartwright continued to promote presbyterianism through the formation of unofficial clerical conferences that allowed Puritan clergymen to organise and network. This covert Puritan network was discovered and dismantled during theMarprelate controversy of the 1580s. For the remainder of Elizabeth's reign, Puritans ceased to agitate for further reform.[25]
The accession ofJames I to the English throne brought theMillenary Petition, a Puritanmanifesto of 1603 for reform of the English church, but James wanted a religious settlement along different lines. He called theHampton Court Conference in 1604, and heard the teachings of four prominent Puritan leaders, includingLaurence Chaderton, but largely sided with his bishops. He was well informed on theological matters by his education and Scottish upbringing, and he dealt shortly with the peevish legacy of Elizabethan Puritanism, pursuing anirenic religious policy, in which he was arbiter.
Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notablyJames Montague, who was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably theBook of Common Prayer, but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion.[26] Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant. In many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of therevisedBook of Common Prayer.[citation needed]
The Puritan movement of Jacobean times became distinctive by adaptation and compromise, with the emergence of "semi-separatism", "moderate puritanism", the writings ofWilliam Bradshaw (who adopted the term "Puritan" for himself), and the beginnings ofCongregationalism.[27] Most Puritans of this period were non-separating and remained within the Church of England; Separatists who left the Church of England altogether were numerically much fewer.
UnderCharles I, the Puritans became a political force as well as a religious tendency in the country. Opponents of theroyal prerogative became allies of Puritan reformers, who saw theChurch of England moving in a direction opposite to what they wanted, and objected to increasedCatholic influence both at Court and (as they saw it) within the Church.
After theFirst English Civil War political power was held by various factions of Puritans. The trials and executions ofWilliam Laud and then King Charles were decisive moves shaping British history. While in the short term Puritan power was consolidated by the Parliamentary armed forces andOliver Cromwell, in the same years, the argument fortheocracy failed to convince enough of the various groupings, and there was no Puritan religious settlement to match Cromwell's gradual assumption of dictatorial powers. The distinctive formulation ofReformed theology in theWestminster Assembly would prove to be its lasting legacy.
InNew England, immigration of what were Puritan family groups and congregations was at its peak for the middle years of King Charles's reign.
The Puritan movement in England was riven over decades by emigration and inconsistent interpretations of Scripture, as well as some political differences that surfaced at that time.The Fifth Monarchy Men, a radical millenarian wing of Puritanism, aided by strident, popular clergy likeVavasor Powell, agitated from the right wing of the movement, even as sectarian groups like theRanters,Levellers, andQuakers pulled from the left.[28][29] The fragmentation created a collapse of the centre and, ultimately, sealed a political failure, while depositing an enduring spiritual legacy that would remain and grow in English-speaking Christianity.[30]
At the time of theEnglish Restoration in 1660, theSavoy Conference was called to determine a new religious settlement for England and Wales. Under theAct of Uniformity 1662, the Church of England was restored to its pre-Civil War constitution with only minor changes, and the Puritans found themselves sidelined. A traditional estimate of historianCalamy is that around 2,400 Puritan clergy left the Church in the "Great Ejection" of 1662.[33] At this point, the term "Dissenter" came to include "Puritan", but more accurately described those (clergy or lay) who "dissented" from the1662Book of Common Prayer.[34]
The Dissenters divided themselves from all other Christians in the Church of England and established their own Separatist congregations in the 1660s and 1670s. An estimated 1,800 of the ejected clergy continued in some fashion as ministers of religion, according toRichard Baxter.[33] The government initially attempted to suppress these schismatic organisations by using theClarendon Code. There followed a period in which schemes of "comprehension" were proposed, under which Presbyterians could be brought back into the Church of England, but nothing resulted from them. TheWhigs opposed the court religious policies and argued that the Dissenters should be allowed to worship separately from the established Church. This position ultimately prevailed when theToleration Act was passed in the wake of theGlorious Revolution in 1689. This permitted the licensing of Dissenting ministers and the building of chapels. The term "Nonconformist" generally replaced the term "Dissenter" from the middle of the 18th century.
SomePuritans left for New England, particularly from 1629 to 1640 (Charles I'sPersonal Rule), supporting the founding of theMassachusetts Bay Colony and other settlements among the northern colonies. The large-scale Puritan migration to New England ceased by 1641, with around 21,000 persons having moved across the Atlantic. This English-speaking population in the United States was not descended from all of the original colonists, since many returned to England shortly after arriving on the continent, but it produced more than 16 million descendants.[35][36] This so-called "Great Migration" is not so named because of sheer numbers, which were much less than the number of English citizens who immigrated toVirginia and theCaribbean during this time, many as indentured servants.[37] The rapid growth of the New England colonies (around 700,000 by 1790) was almost entirely due to the high birth rate and lower death rate per year. They had formed families more rapidly than did the southern colonies.[38]
Puritan hegemony lasted for at least a century. That century can be broken down into three parts: the generation ofJohn Cotton andRichard Mather, 1630–1662 from the founding to the Restoration, years of virtual independence and nearly autonomous development; the generation ofIncrease Mather, 1662–1689 from the Restoration and theHalfway Covenant to the Glorious Revolution, years of struggle with the British crown; and the generation ofCotton Mather, 1689–1728 from the overthrow ofEdmund Andros (in which Cotton Mather played a part) and the new charter, mediated by Increase Mather, to the death of Cotton Mather.[39] Puritan leaders were political thinkers and writers who considered the church government to be God's agency in social life.[40]
The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation.[41][42][43][44] In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English-speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As a result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world.
By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities—New York and Philadelphia—with as many as 20,000 people in them).[44][45][46][47] The Puritans also set up a college (nowHarvard University) only six years after arriving in Boston.[44][48]
Puritanism broadly refers to a diverse religious reform movement in Britain that was committed to theContinental Reformed tradition.[49] While Puritans did not agree upon all doctrinal points, most of them shared similar doctrines about the nature ofGod, humansinfulness, and the relationship between God and mankind. They believed that all of their beliefs should be based upon theBible, which they considered to bedivinely inspired.[50]
Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief indouble predestination, that some people (theelect) were destined by God to receivegrace andsalvation while others were destined forHell.[53] No one, however, couldmerit salvation. According to covenant theology,Jesus's sacrifice on the cross made possible the covenant of grace, by which people who are selected by God could be saved. Puritans believed inunconditional election andirresistible grace, which means that God's grace was given freely without condition to the elect, and could not be refused.[54]
Covenant theology made individual salvation deeply personal. It held that God's predestination was not "impersonal and mechanical", but was a "covenant of grace" that one entered into byfaith. Therefore, being a Christian could never be reduced to simple "intellectual acknowledgment" of the truth of Christianity. Puritans agreed that theeffectual call of each electsaint of God would always come as an individuated personal encounter with God's promises.[55]
The process by which the elect are brought fromspiritual death to spiritual life (regeneration) was described asconversion.[54] Early on, Puritans did not consider a specific conversion experience normative or necessary, but many gainedassurance of salvation from such experiences. Over time, however, Puritan theologians developed a framework for authentic religious experience based upon their own experiences, as well as those of their parishioners. Eventually, Puritans came to regard a specific conversion experience as an essential mark of one's election.[56]
The Puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase that was designed to produce contrition for sin via introspection,Bible study, and listening topreaching. This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin, and that their good works could never earn forgiveness.[54] It was after reaching this point (the realization that salvation was possible only because of divinemercy) that the person would experiencejustification, when the righteousness of Jesus isimputed to the elect, and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience, and they referred to it as being "born again".[57]
Confirming that such a conversion had actually happened often required prolonged and continual introspection. The historianPerry Miller wrote that the Puritans "liberated men from the treadmill ofindulgences andpenances, but cast them on the iron couch of introspection".[58] It was expected that conversion would be followed bysanctification, which is described as "the progressive growth in the saint's ability to better perceive and seek God's will, and thus to lead a holy life".[57] Some Puritans attempted to find assurance of their faith via keeping detailed records of their behavior and looking for the evidence of salvation in their lives. Puritan clergy wrote many spiritual guides to help their parishioners pursue personalpiety and sanctification. These includedArthur Dent'sThe Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven (1601),Richard Rogers'sSeven Treatises (1603),Henry Scudder'sChristian's Daily Walk (1627), and Richard Sibbes'sThe Bruised Reed and Smoking Flax (1630).[59]
Too much emphasis upon one's good works could be criticized for being too close toArminianism, and too much emphasis upon subjective religious experience could be criticized asAntinomianism. Many Puritans relied upon both personal religious experience and self-examination to assess their spiritual condition.[59]
Puritanism's experiential piety would be inherited by theevangelical Protestants of the 1700s.[58] While evangelical doctrines about conversion were heavily influenced by Puritan theology, the Puritans believed that assurance of one's salvation was rare, late in life, and "the fruit of struggle in the experience of believers", whereas evangelicals believed that assurance was normative for all people who were truly converted.[60]
While most Puritans were members of the Church of England, they were critical of its worship practices. In the 17th century, Sunday worship in the established church took the form of theMorning Prayer service in theBook of Common Prayer. This may include a sermon, but Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper was only occasionally observed. Officially, lay people were only required to receive communion three times a year, but most people only received communion once a year at Easter. Puritans were concerned about biblical errors and Catholic remnants within the prayer book. Puritans objected to bowing at the name of Jesus, the requirement that priests wear thesurplice, and the use of written, set prayers in place of improvised prayers.[61]
The sermon was central to Puritan piety.[62] It was not only a means of religious education; Puritans believed it was the most common way that God prepared a sinner's heart for conversion.[63] On Sundays, Puritan ministers often shortened the liturgy to allow more time for preaching.[22] Puritan churchgoers attended two sermons on Sundays and as many weekday sermons and lectures they could find, often traveling for miles.[64] Puritans were distinct for their adherence toSabbatarianism.[65]
Puritans taught that there were twosacraments: baptism and the Lord's Supper. Puritans agreed with the church's practice ofinfant baptism. However, the effect of baptism was disputed. Puritans objected to the prayer book's assertion ofbaptismal regeneration.[66] In Puritan theology, infant baptism was understood in terms of covenant theology—baptism replacedcircumcision as a sign of the covenant and marked a child's admission into thevisible church. It could not be assumed that baptism produces regeneration. The Westminster Confession states that the grace of baptism is only effective for those who are among the elect, and its effects lie dormant until one experiences conversion later in life.[67] Puritans wanted to do away withgodparents, who madebaptismal vows on behalf of infants, and give that responsibility to the child's father. Puritans also objected to priests making thesign of the cross in baptism. Private baptisms were opposed because Puritans believed that preaching should always accompany sacraments. Some Puritan clergy even refused to baptise dying infants because that implied the sacrament contributed to salvation.[68]
Puritans rejected both Roman Catholic (transubstantiation) and Lutheran (sacramental union) teachings that Christ is physically present in thebread andwine of the Lord's Supper. Instead, Puritans embraced the Reformed doctrine ofreal spiritual presence, believing that in the Lord's Supper the faithful receive Christ spiritually. In agreement withThomas Cranmer, the Puritans stressed "that Christ comes down to us in the sacrament by His Word and Spirit, offering Himself as our spiritual food and drink".[69] They criticised the prayer book service for being too similar to the Catholic mass. For example, the requirement that people kneel to receive communion impliedadoration of the Eucharist, a practice linked to transubstantiation. Puritans also criticised the Church of England for allowing unrepentant sinners to receive communion. Puritans wanted better spiritual preparation (such as clergy home visits and testing people on their knowledge of the catechism) for communion and betterchurch discipline to ensure that the unworthy were kept from the sacrament.[68]
Puritans did not believeconfirmation was necessary and thought candidates were poorly prepared since bishops did not have the time to examine them properly.[70][71] The marriage service was criticised for using a wedding ring (which implied that marriage was a sacrament) and having the groom vow to his bride "with my body I thee worship", which Puritans consideredblasphemous. In the funeral service, the priest committed the body to the ground "in sure and certain hope of resurrection to eternal life, through our Lord Jesus Christ." Puritans objected to this phrase because they did not believe it was true for everyone. They suggested it be rewritten as "we commit his body [etc.] believing a resurrection of the just and unjust, some to joy, and some to punishment."[71]
Polemicalpopular print with aCatalogue of Sects, 1647
While the Puritans were united in their goal of furthering the English Reformation, they were always divided over issues ofecclesiology and church polity, specifically questions that relate to the manner of organizing congregations, how individual congregations should relate with one another, and whetherestablished national churches were scriptural.[56] On these questions, Puritans divided between supporters ofepiscopal polity,presbyterian polity, andcongregational polity.
The episcopalians (known as theprelatical party) were conservatives, who supported retaining bishops if those leaders supported reform and agreed to share power with local churches.[74] They also supported the idea of having aBook of Common Prayer, but they were against demanding strict conformity or having too much ceremony. In addition, these Puritans called for a renewal of preaching,pastoral care, and Christiandiscipline within the Church of England.[56]
Like the episcopalians, the presbyterians agreed that there should be a national church, but one that is structured upon the model of theChurch of Scotland.[74] They wanted to replace bishops with a system of elective and representative governing bodies of clergy andlaity (localsessions,presbyteries,synods, and ultimately a nationalgeneral assembly).[56] During theInterregnum, the presbyterians had limited success at reorganizing the Church of England. TheWestminster Assembly proposed the creation of a presbyterian system, but theLong Parliament left implementation to local authorities. As a result, the Church of England never developed a complete presbyterian hierarchy.[75]
Congregationalists orIndependents believed in the autonomy of the local church, which ideally would be a congregation of "visible saints" (meaning those who had experienced conversion).[76] Members would be required to abide by achurch covenant, in which they "pledged to join in the proper worship of God and to nourish each other in the search for further religious truth".[74] Such churches were regarded as complete within themselves, with full authority to determine their own membership, administer their own discipline, and ordain their own ministers. Furthermore, the sacraments would only be administered to those in the church covenant.[77]
Most congregational Puritans remained within the Church of England, hoping to reform it according to their own doctrines. TheNew England Congregationalists were also adamant that they were not separating from the Church of England. However, some Puritans equated the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church, and therefore considered it to be no Christian church at all. These groups, such as theBrownists, would split from the established church, and become known as Separatists. Other Separatists embraced more radical positions, particularly on the subject ofbeliever's baptism, and became earlyBaptists.[77]
Calvin taught that if worldly rulers rise up against God they should be put down which could be hard to reconcile with the claims ofdivine right monarchy.[78] Puritan views on church and state were also affected by their views on church governance, with those who favoured more centralised models tending to favour a closer relationship between the church and state, as well as other foreign models and their changing relationship with the English state.
During theInterregnum, led by the IndependentOliver Cromwell, starting in 1649, theparish system was retained and ministers financed throughtithes, but oversight was exercised by state-appointed commissions such as theTriers and Ejectors, allowing a range of Protestant congregations to receive support while excluding Catholics and radical sects.[84]
On 27 September 1650, theRump Parliament of theCommonwealth of England passedan Act[85] repealing theAct of Supremacy,Act of Uniformity, and all laws makingrecusancy a crime. There was no longer a legal requirement to attend the parish church on Sundays (for both Protestants and Catholics). In 1653, responsibility for recording births, marriages, and deaths was transferred from the church to a civil registrar. The result was that church baptisms and marriages became private acts, not guarantees of legal rights, which provided greater equality to dissenters.[86]
The 1653Instrument of Government guaranteed that in matters of religion, "none shall be compelled by penalties or otherwise, but endeavours be used to win them by sound Doctrine and the Example of a good conversation". Religious freedom was given to "all who profess Faith in God by Jesus Christ".[87] However, Catholics and some others were excluded. No one was executed for their religion duringthe Protectorate.[87] In London, people who attended Catholic mass or Anglican holy communion were occasionally arrested, but released without charge. Many unofficial Protestant congregations, such as Baptist churches, were permitted to meet.[88] Quakers were allowed to publish freely and to hold meetings. They were, however, arrested for disrupting parish church services and organisingtithe-strikes against the state church.[89]
The Snake in the Grass or Satan Transform'd to an Angel of Light, title page engraved byRichard Gaywood,c. 1660
Based on Biblical portrayals ofAdam and Eve, Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation.[90] Husbands were the spiritual heads of the household, while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority.[91] Furthermore, marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife, but also the relationship between spouses and God. Puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer. The female relationship to her husband and to God was marked by submissiveness and humility.[92]
... together for a time as copartners in grace here, [that] they may reigne together forever as coheires in glory hereafter.[93]
The paradox created by female inferiority in the public sphere and the spiritual equality of men and women in marriage, then, gave way to the informal authority of women concerning matters of the home and childrearing.[94] With the consent of their husbands, wives made important decisions concerning the labour of their children, property, and the management of inns and taverns owned by their husbands.[95] Pious Puritan mothers laboured for their children's righteousness and salvation, connecting women directly to matters of religion and morality.[96] In her poem titled "In Reference to her Children", poetAnne Bradstreet reflects on her role as a mother:
I had eight birds hatched in one nest; Four cocks there were, and hens the rest. I nursed them up with pain and care, Nor cost nor labour I did spare.
Bradstreet alludes to thetemporality of motherhood by comparing her children to a flock of birds on the precipice of leaving home. While Puritans praised the obedience of young children, they also believed that, by separating children from their mothers at adolescence, children could better sustain a superior relationship with God.[97] A child could only be redeemed through religious education and obedience. Girls carried the additional burden of Eve's corruption and werecatechised separately from boys at adolescence. Boys' education prepared them for vocations and leadership roles, while girls were educated for domestic and religious purposes. The pinnacle of achievement for children in Puritan society, however, occurred with the conversion process.[96]
Puritans viewed the relationship between master and servant similarly to that of parent and child. Just as parents were expected to uphold Puritan religious values in the home, masters assumed the parental responsibility of housing and educating young servants. Older servants also dwelt with masters and were cared for in the event of illness or injury. African-American and Indian servants were likely excluded from such benefits.[98]
Many Puritan communities operated under strict values that determined gender roles and generally “pure” behavior. Many of these values were shaped from their interpretation of theBible. If anyone in the community was found to have disobeyed or strayed from these values, they would be reported and put through thecensure process. This involved a public confession from the accused of their wrongdoings. People would be censured for things that ranged from immodesty and cursing to domestic abuse and fornication.[99] Religious leaders would often make an example of the censured individual by turning their experience into a lesson for thecongregation. In some cases,ministers orelders would meet with an individual to counsel them for a “private sin,” such asimpiety or struggles with faith, before taking public action. In 1648, Puritan ministerThomas Hooker explained the necessity of church discipline: “[God] hath appointed Church-censures as good Physick, to purge out what is evill, as well as Word and Sacraments, which, like good diet, are sufficient to nourish the soul to eternal life.” They saw these practices as necessary for the community to keep each other in check and in line with their “godly paths.”[100]
While Puritan doctrine viewed men and women spiritually equal,laymen reinterpretedspirituality to reflect their ideas ofmasculinity. Men displayed their spirituality through their public actions and behaviors, such as being a good neighbor to the community and father to their families. Women were expected to reflect their inner spirituality with their entire being. The human soul was often described using feminine language, but men were allowed to separate their mind and body from their souls in order to maintain an image of masculinity on the outside.[101] The husband was thepatriarch with ultimate authority, and the wife would be his assistant. If any of the other members of the family misbehaved, such as the children or even their mother, their actions reflected the capability of the father to be the head of the household.[102] Thus, men were often called out for not fulfilling their role as a good father, husband, and/or neighbor.
As a result of this reinterpretation of the Puritan doctrine to reflect certain gendered beliefs, the things men and women were censured for differed. For example, women were often associated with “Eve,” a temptress and sinful seductress. This led to women being censured forfornication far more often than men.[103] Men, on the other hand, had more of a focus on civil duty, being censured for filing false lawsuits, arguing over property lines, charging inflated prices, tearing down a neighbor’s mill, land fraud, or poor military conduct. In the economic sphere, women lacked formal power. Thus, men were censured more often for poor business practices.[104]
The audience played a large role in censures, listening for certain words that demonstrated the accused was truly remorseful for their actions. Similar to the distinction between female and male spirituality, the language women and men used in their confessions differed. The feminized language expected from women included words such as “shame,” “wounded,” “great sin,” “nature,” “pity,” “evil,” “poor,” and “grief.” On the other hand, men used more objective phrases such as “rules,” breach,” offense,” desire,” forgiveness,” actions,” and “brethren.”[105]
The difference in treatment for men and women was reflected even in the specific sins they were accused of committing. As stated earlier, women were rarely censured for economic disputes as they lacked influence in that regard. Thus, if a commercial dispute involving a woman were to arise, the congregation treated her differently than a man. Such was the case for a woman named Chaplain: “In 1696, Dorchester’s Sister Chaplain borrowed money from John Green to buy a shipment of wine. When Green died and his estate tried to collect the debt from Chaplain, she refused. The congregation did not cite her for breaking a contract, but censured her for lying.”[106] Women would also at times face harsher punishments than men for the same sin. “Boston's Second Church censured John Farnum for making bad comments about another church and its pastor, and they noted he was "breaking the rule of truth." However, that same congregation recorded much harsher words about Sarah Stevens, whom they admonished for "many evill carriages and sundry filthy speeches, not fit to be named." And when they censured her, they said she "grew more vile and hard hearted." The court also took up her case and sentenced her to jail and two whippings.”[107]
Like most Christians in theearly modern period, Puritans believed in the active existence of thedevil anddemons as evil forces that could possess and cause harm to men and women. There was also widespread belief inwitchcraft and witches—persons in league with the devil. "Unexplained phenomena such as the death of livestock, human disease, and hideous fits suffered by young and old" may all be blamed on the agency of the devil or a witch.[108]
Puritan pastors undertookexorcisms fordemonic possession in some high-profile cases. ExorcistJohn Darrell was supported byArthur Hildersham in the case of Thomas Darling.[109]Samuel Harsnett, a sceptic on witchcraft and possession, attacked Darrell. However, Harsnett was in the minority, and many clergy, not only Puritans, believed in witchcraft and possession.[110]
In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of people throughout Europe were accused of being witches and executed. In England and Colonial America, Puritans engaged inwitch hunts as well. In the 1640s,Matthew Hopkins, the self-proclaimed "Witchfinder General", whose career flourished during Puritan rule, was responsible for accusing over two hundred people of witchcraft, mainly inEast Anglia.[111] Between 1644 and 1647, Hopkins and his colleagueJohn Stearne sent more accused people to thegallows than all the other witch-hunters in England of the previous 160 years.[112] In New England, few people were accused and convicted of witchcraft before 1692; there were at most sixteen convictions.[113]
TheSalem witch trials of 1692 had a lasting impact on the historical reputation of New England Puritans. Though this witch hunt occurred after Puritans lost political control of theMassachusetts colony, Puritans instigated the judicial proceedings against the accused and comprised the members of the court that convicted and sentenced the accused. By the time GovernorWilliam Phips ended the trials, fourteen women and five men had been hanged as witches.[114]
Puritanmillennialism has been placed in the broader context of European Reformed beliefs about the millennium and interpretation ofbiblical prophecy, for which representative figures of the period wereJohannes Piscator,Thomas Brightman,Joseph Mede,Johannes Heinrich Alsted, andJohn Amos Comenius.[115] Like most English Protestants of the time, Puritans based their eschatological beliefs upon ahistoricist interpretation of theBook of Revelation and theBook of Daniel. Protestant theologians identified the sequential phases that the world must pass through before theLast Judgment could occur, and tended to place their own time period near the end. It was expected that tribulation and persecution would increase, but eventually the church's enemies, namely theAntichrist (identified with the Roman Catholic Church) and theOttoman Empire, would be defeated.[116] Based uponRevelation 20, it was believed that a thousand-year period (the millennium) would occur, during which the saints would rule with Jesus on Earth.[117]
In contrast to other Protestants who tended to view eschatology as an explanation for "God's remote plans for the world and man", Puritans understood it to describe "the cosmic environment in which the regenerate soldier of Christ was now to do battle against the power of sin".[118] On a personal level, eschatology was related to sanctification, assurance of salvation, and the conversion experience. On a larger level, eschatology was the lens through which events such as the English Civil War and theThirty Years' War were interpreted. There was also an optimistic aspect to Puritan millennianism: Puritans anticipated a future worldwide religious revival before theSecond Coming of Jesus.[119][117] Another departure from other Protestants was the widespread belief among Puritans that theconversion of the Jews to Christianity was an important sign of theapocalypse.[120]
Some strong religious beliefs common to Puritans had direct impacts on culture. Puritans believed it was the government's responsibility to enforce moral standards and ensure true religious worship was established and maintained.[121] Education was essential to every person, male and female, so that they could read the Bible for themselves. However, the Puritans' emphasis on individual spiritual independence was not always compatible with the community cohesion that was also a strong ideal.[122]Anne Hutchinson (1591–1643), the well educated daughter of a teacher, argued with the established theological orthodoxy, and was forced to leave colonial New England with her followers.[123]
At a time when the literacy rate in England was less than 30 per cent, the Puritan leaders of colonial New England believed that children should be educated for both religious and civil reasons, and they worked to achieve universal literacy.[124] In 1642, Massachusetts required heads of households to teach their wives, children, and servants basic reading and writing, so that they could read the Bible and understand colonial laws. In 1647, the government required all towns with 50 or more households to hire a teacher, and required towns of 100 or more households to hire agrammar school instructor, to prepare promising boys for college. Philemon Pormort'sBoston Latin School was the only one in Boston, the first school of public instruction in Massachusetts".[125] Boys who were interested in the ministry were often sent to colleges such asHarvard (founded in 1636) orYale (founded in 1707).[43] Aspiring lawyers or doctors apprenticed to a local practitioner, or in rare cases, were sent to England or Scotland.[126]
1659 public notice inBoston deeming Christmas illegal
Puritans in both England and New England believed that the state should protect and promote true religion and that religion should influence politics and social life.[130][131] Certain holidays were outlawed when Puritans came to power. In 1647, Parliament outlawed the celebration ofChristmas,Easter andWhitsuntide.[132] Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings ofpopery" or the "rags ofthe Beast".[133] They also objected to Christmas because the festivities surrounding the holiday were seen as impious (English jails were usually filled with drunken revelers and brawlers).[134] During the years that the Puritan ban on Christmas was in place in England, protests occurred over the repressiveness of the Puritan regime.[135] Pro-Christmas rioting broke out across England, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sangcarols in secret.[135][136] Followingthe restoration in 1660, when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, Christmas was again freely celebrated in England.[136] Christmas was outlawed in Boston from 1659.[137] The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governorEdmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights.[137] Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region.[138]
Attempting to force religious and intellectual homogeneity on the whole community, civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to enforce conformity, including thebranding iron, thewhipping post, thebilboes and thehangman's noose.[139] Swearing and blasphemy were illegal. In 1636, Massachusetts made blasphemy—defined as "a cursing of God by atheism, or the like"—punishable by death.[140]
Puritans were opposed to Sunday sport or recreation because these distracted from religious observance of theSabbath.[131] In an attempt to offset the strictness of the Puritans,James I'sBook of Sports (1618) permitted Christians to play football every Sunday afternoon after worship.[141] When the Puritans established themselves in power, football was among the sports that were banned: boys caught playing on Sunday could be prosecuted.[142] Football was also used as a rebellious force: when Puritans outlawed Christmas in England in December 1647 the crowd brought out footballs as a symbol of festive misrule.[142] Other forms of leisure and entertainment were completely forbidden on moral grounds. For example, Puritans were universally opposed toblood sports such asbearbaiting andcockfighting because they involved unnecessary injury to God's creatures. For similar reasons, they also opposedboxing.[63] These sports were illegal in England during Puritan rule.[143]
While card playing by itself was generally considered acceptable, card playing andgambling were banned in England and the colonies, as was mixed dancing involving men and women—which Mather condemned as "promiscuous dancing"—because it was thought to lead tofornication.[130][144]Folk dance that did not involve close contact between men and women was considered appropriate.[145] Thebranle dance, which involved couples intertwining arms or holding hands, returned to popularity in England after the restoration when the bans imposed by the Puritans were lifted.[146] In New England, the first dancing school did not open until the end of the 17th century.[131]
Puritans condemned thesexualization of thetheatre and its associations with depravity and prostitution—London's theatres were located on the south side of theThames, which was a center of prostitution. A major Puritan attack on the theatre wasWilliam Prynne's bookHistriomastix which marshals a multitude of ancient and medieval authorities against the "sin" of dramatic performance. Puritan authoritiesshut down English theatres in the 1640s and 1650s—Shakespeare'sGlobe Theatre was demolished—and none were allowed to open in Puritan-controlled colonies.[147][148] In January 1643, actors in London protested against the ban with a pamphlet titledThe Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses.[149] With the end of Puritan rule and the restoration of Charles II, theatre among other arts exploded, and London's oldest operating theatre,Drury Lane in theWest End, opened in 1663.[150][151] The puppet showPunch and Judy, dominated by the anarchic Mr Punch, made its first recorded appearance in England in May 1662, with show historian Glyn Edwards stating the character of Punch "went down particularly well with Restoration British audiences, fun-starved after years of Puritanism ... he became, really, a spirit of Britain – a subversive maverick who defies authority".[152]
Puritans were not opposed to drinking alcohol in moderation.[153] However, alehouses were closely regulated by Puritan-controlled governments in both England and Colonial America.[131] Laws inMassachusetts in 1634 banned the "abominable" practice of individualstoasting each other's health.[154]William Prynne, the most rabid of the Puritan anti-toasters, wrote a book on the subject,Health's Sicknesse (1628), that "this drinking and quaffing of healthes had it origin and birth from Pagans, heathens, and infidels, yea, from the very Deuill himself."[154]
19th-century portrayal of the burning of William Pynchon'sbanned book on Boston Common after it was deemed blasphemous by the Massachusetts Bay Colony
In 1649, English colonistWilliam Pynchon, the founder ofSpringfield, Massachusetts, wrote a critique of Puritanical Calvinism, entitledThe Meritorious Price of Our Redemption. Published in London in 1650, when the book reached Boston it was immediately burned onBoston Common and the colony pressed Pynchon to return to England which he did.[155] The censorious nature of the Puritans and the region they inhabited would lead to the phrase "banned in Boston" being coined in the late 19th century, a phrase which was applied to Boston up to the mid-20th century.[156]
Bounds were not set on enjoying sexuality within the bounds of marriage, as a gift from God.[157] Spouses were disciplined if they did not perform their sexual marital duties, in accordance with1 Corinthians 7 and other biblical passages. Women and men were equally expected to fulfill marital responsibilities.[158] Women and men could file for divorce based on this issue alone. In Massachusetts colony, which had some of the most liberal colonial divorce laws, one out of every six divorce petitions was filed on the basis of male impotence.[159] Puritans publicly punished drunkenness andsexual relations outside marriage.[130] Couples who had sex during their engagement were fined and publicly humiliated.[130] Men, and a handful of women, who engaged in homosexual behavior, were seen as especially sinful, with some executed.[130] While the practice of execution was also infrequently used for rape and adultery, homosexuality was actually seen as a worse sin.[160] Passages from the Old Testament, including Lev 20:13., were thought to support the disgust for homosexuality and efforts to purge society of it. New Haven code stated "If any man lyeth with mankinde, as a man lyeth with a woman, both of them have committed abomination, they shall surely be put to death"[161] and in 1636 the Plymouth Colony adopted a set of laws that included a sentence of death for sodomy and buggery.[162] Prominent authors such as Thomas Cobbert, Samual Danforth and Cotton Mather wrote pieces condemning homosexuality.[160] Mather argued that the passage "Overcome the Devil when he tempts you to the youthful sin of Uncleanness" was referring "probably to the young men of Sodom".[163]
Puritan political thought continued to shape political culture on both sides of the Atlantic, influencing both the ideology of theAmerican Revolution the development of British liberal tradition.
Puritanism contributed to theAmerican Revolution partly through a sense that America was part of God's plan[164] but mainly through the genesis of the eighteenth-century BritishRadical Whigs.[165] The revolution's ideological basis was largely provided by the Radical Whigs, specifically theCommonwealthmen, who had been inspired by earlier Puritan writers such asAlgernon Sidney,[166]John Milton,James Harrington andHenry Neville.[167] Robert Middlekauff argues that the comparatively secularized Radical Whig analysis fell on fertile American ground due to thePuritanism of the previous century that bequeathed a suspicion of executive authority[168] although there are scholars such asZera Fink who argued that Puritan political radicalism also owed a debt toClassical republicanism ultimately fromAncient Greece.[169]
In England, the historic alliance betweenNonconformists andWhiggery - and later theLiberal Party - was a strong one. Rooted in shared support for civil and religious liberty, this connection culminated by the turn of the twentieth century in what became known as theNonconformist conscience, a moral and political movement that sought to applyevangelical principles to public life.
Puritanism played a central role in the development of EnglishNonconformism, as many Puritans rejected theChurch of England’s hierarchical structure, ceremonial practices and other perceived remnants ofCatholicism.[170] Their emphasis on individual conscience, the authority of Scripture, and congregational autonomy led to the formation of independent religious groups outside the established church. Following theRestoration in 1660 and theAct of Uniformity 1662, many Puritan ministers refused to conform to the prescribed rites of the Church of England and were consequently expelled from their livings in what was known as theGreat Ejection. These Dissenters or Nonconformists formed the basis of later BritishCongregationalist,Baptist, andPresbyterian traditions.
Four Quakers, known as theBoston martyrs, were executed. The first two of the four Boston martyrs were executed by the Puritans on 27 October 1659, and in memory of this, 27 October is nowInternational Religious Freedom Day, to recognise the importance of freedom of religion.[172] In 1660, one of the most notable victims of the religious intolerance was the English QuakerMary Dyer, who was hanged in Boston for repeatedly defying a Puritan law which banned Quakers from the colony.[171] The hanging of Dyer on Boston Common marked the beginning of the end of the Puritantheocracy.[173] In 1661,King Charles II explicitly forbade Massachusetts from executing anyone for professing Quakerism.[173] In 1684, Englandrevoked the Massachusetts charter, and in 1686, they sent over a royal governor to enforce English laws, and in 1689, they passed a broadToleration Act.[173]
Anti-Catholic sentiment appeared in New England with the first Pilgrim and Puritan settlers.[174] In 1647, Massachusetts passed a law which prohibited anyJesuit Roman Catholic priests from entering territory that was under Puritan jurisdiction.[175] Any suspected Catholic who could not clear himself was to be banished from the colony; a second offense carried a death penalty.[176] A plaque in Southwick Hall at the University of Massachusetts Lowell commemorates "Royal Southwick, Lowell's anti-slavery Quaker senator and manufacturer and a descendant ofLawrence and Cassandra Southwick who were despoiled, imprisoned, starved, whipped, banished from Massachusetts Colony and persecuted to death in the year 1660 for being Quakers".[177]
Puritanism has attracted much scholarly attention, and as a result, the secondary literature on the subject is vast. Puritanism is considered crucial to understanding the religious, political, and cultural issues of early modern England. In addition, historians such asPerry Miller have regarded Puritan New England as fundamental to understanding American culture and identity. Puritanism has also been credited with the creation ofmodernity itself, from England'sScientific Revolution to the rise of democracy. In the early 20th century,Max Weber argued inThe Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism that Calvinist self-denial resulted in aProtestant work ethic that nurtured the development ofcapitalism in Europe and North America. Puritan authors such asJohn Milton,John Bunyan,Anne Bradstreet, andEdward Taylor continue to be read and studied as important figures within English and American literature.[178]
A debate continues on the definition of "Puritanism".[179] The English historianPatrick Collinson argues that "There is little point in constructing elaborate statements defining what, in ontological terms, puritanism was and what it was not, when it was not a thing definable in itself but only one half of a stressful relationship."[180] Puritanism "was only the mirror image of anti-puritanism and to a considerable extent its invention: a stigma, with great power to distract and distort historical memory."[181] The historian John Spurr writes that Puritans were defined by their relationships with their surroundings, especially with the Church of England. Whenever the Church of England changed, Spurr argues, the definition of a Puritan also changed.[8]
The analysis of "mainstream Puritanism", in terms of the evolution from it of Separatist andantinomian groups that did not flourish, and others that continue to this day, such asBaptists andQuakers, can suffer in this way. The national context (England and Wales, as well as the kingdoms of Scotland and Ireland) frames the definition of Puritans, but was not a self-identification for those Protestants who saw the progress of theThirty Years' War from 1620 as directly bearing on their denomination, and as a continuation of the religious wars of the previous century, carried on by the English Civil Wars. The English historianChristopher Hill writes of the 1630s, old church lands, and the accusations thatWilliam Laud was a crypto-Catholic:
To the heightened Puritan imagination it seemed that, all over Europe, the lamps were going out: theCounter-Reformation was winning back property for thechurch as well as souls: and Charles I and his government, if not allied to the forces of the Counter-Reformation, at least appeared to have set themselves identical economic and political objectives.[182]
Anne Hutchinson was a Puritan woman who was noted for speaking freely about her religious beliefs, which resulted in her banishment fromMassachusetts Bay Colony.
John Milton is regarded as among the greatest English poets; author of epics likeParadise Lost, and dramas likeSamson Agonistes. He was a staunch supporter of Cromwell.
James Noyes was an influential Puritan minister, teacher, and founder ofNewbury.
Philip Nye (minister) was the key adviser to Oliver Cromwell on matters of religion and regulation of the Church.
Thomas Parker was an influential Puritan minister, teacher, and founder of Newbury.
Samuel Parris was a Puritan minister who gained notoriety for being the minister of Salem Village during theSalem witch trials.
Robert Woodford was an English lawyer, largely based at Northampton and London. His diary for the period 1637–1641 records in detail the outlook of an educated Puritan.
^Miller 2008, p. 296: "Congregationalists were theologically descended directly from the Puritans of England and consequently enjoyed pride of place as one of the oldest, most numerous, and most significant religious groups in the colonies."
^Morris, John W. (2011).The Historic Church: An Orthodox View of Christian History. Author House. p. 438.
^Coffey & Lim 2008, pp. 83–84: "But it was not for their heterodox theology or their own open meetings that they [the Quakers] were arrested and mistreated. It was for disrupting services in what they insisted on calling ‘steeple-houses’ rather than churches; that, or for organising tithe-strikes aimed directly and specifically to undermine the state church."
^Robbins, Rossell Hope (1959). "Hopkins, Matthew".The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology. New York: Crown Publishers.
^Notestein, Wallace (1911).A History of Witchcraft In England from 1558 to 1718. American Historical Association 1911 (reissued 1965) New YorkRussell & Russell. p. 195.
^Lewis (1969, pp. 116–117): "On many questions and specially in view of the marriage bed, the Puritans were the indulgent party, ... they were much moreChestertonian than their adversaries [the Roman Catholics]. The idea that a Puritan was a repressed and repressive person would have astonished SirThomas More andLuther about equally."
^Pat, Perrin (1 January 1970).Crime and Punishment: The Colonial Period to the New Frontier. Discovery Enterprises. p. 24.
^Mahoney, Kathleen A. (10 September 2003).Catholic Higher Education in Protestant America: The Jesuits and Harvard in the Age of the University.Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 47.
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