Apuppet state,puppet régime,puppet government ordummy government[1] is astate that isde jure independent butde facto completely dependent upon an outsidepower and subject to its orders.[2] Puppet states have nominalsovereignty, except that a foreign power effectively exercises control through economic or military support.[3] By leaving a local government in existence the outside power evades all responsibility, while at the same time successfully paralysing the local government they tolerate.[1][how?]
Puppet states differ fromallies, who choose their actions of their own initiative or in accordance withtreaties they have voluntarily entered. Puppet states are forced intolegally endorsing actions already taken by a foreign power.
Characteristics
Puppet states are "endowed with the outward symbols of authority",[4] such as a name,flag,anthem,constitution,law codes,motto, and government, but in reality, are appendages of another state which creates,[5] sponsors or otherwise controls the puppet government.International law does not recogniseoccupied puppet states aslegitimate.[6]
Puppet states can cease to be puppets through:
military defeat of the "master" state (as inEurope andAsia in 1945),
absorption into the master state (as in the earlySoviet Union),
achievement of independence
Terminology
The term is a metaphor which compares a state or government to apuppet controlled by apuppeteer with strings.[7] The first recorded use of the term "puppet government" was in 1884, in reference to theKhedivate of Egypt.[8][unreliable source?]
In theMiddle Ages,vassal states existed based on delegation of the rule of a country by a king to noble men of lower rank. Since thePeace of Westphalia of 1648, the concept of a nation came into existence wheresovereignty was connected more to the people who inhabited the land than to the nobility who owned the land.
An earlier similar concept issuzerainty, the control of the external affairs of one state by another.[citation needed]
Nineteenth-century examples
French revolutionary and Napoleon/Napoleonic clients
Duchy of Courland and Semigallia (1918) – In 1915, German forces occupied the RussianCourland Governorate and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended thewar in the east, so the local ethnicBaltic Germans established a duchy under the German crown in that part ofOber Ost, with a common return of civil administration in favour of the military.[clarification needed] This state was swiftly merged with the Baltic State Duchy and the German-occupied territories of the Russian Empire in Livonia and Estonia, into a multi-ethnicUnited Baltic Duchy.
DuringJapan's imperial period, and particularly during thePacific War (parts of which are considered the Pacific theatre ofWorld War II), the Imperial Japanese government established a number of dependent states.
Azad Hind (1943–1945), officially known as Provisional Government of Free India – established by Indian nationalists inSingapore in October 1943 bySubhas Chandra Bose and was in charge of Indian expatriates and military personnel in Japanese Southeast Asia. It had nominal sovereignty over Axis controlled Indian territories and would enjoy the prospective control of Indian territory to be captured in afuture invasion of British India. Of the territory of post-independence India, the government took charge ofKohima (after it fell to the Japanese-INA offensive), parts ofManipur that fell to both theJapanese 15th Army and the INA, and theAndaman and Nicobar Islands. The government had diplomatic relationships with eleven countries including Germany, Italy, Japan, Philippines, and the Soviet Union. It was headed by Subhas Chandra Bose, who was the Head of the State and Prime Minister, who was also the Supreme Commander of theIndian National Army. The government had its own cabinet and banks.
South Chahar Autonomous Government (1937–1939) – Formed in South Chahar with its capital at Kalgan (modern dayZhangjiakou) on September 4, 1937. The state was merged with the North Shanxi Autonomous Government as well as the Mongol United Autonomous Government to create Mengjiang.
Mongol Military Government (1936–1937) and Mongol United Autonomous Government (1937–1939) – Established in Inner Mongolia as puppet states with local collaborators. This state formed the large basis of what was to become Mengjiang.
Mengjiang (1936–1945) – Set up inInner Mongolia on May 12, 1936, as the Mongol Military Government was renamed in October 1937 as the Mongol United Autonomous Government. On September 1, 1939, the predominantlyHan Chinese governments of the South Chahar and North Shanxi Autonomous Governments were merged with the Mongol Autonomous Government, creating the new Mengjiang United Autonomous Government. All of these were headed byDe Wang.[14]
Great Way (Dadao) Government (1937–1938) – A short-lived regime based inShanghai. This provisional government was established as a preliminary collaboration state as the Japanese took control of all of Shanghai and advanced towardsNanjing. This was then merged with the Reformed Government of China as well as the Provisional Government of China into the Reorganised Nationalist Government of the Republic of China under the leadership ofWang Jingwei.
Several European governments under the domination ofGermany andItaly during World War II have been described as "puppet régimes". The formal means of control inoccupied Europe varied greatly. These states fall into several categories.
Existing states in alliance with Germany and Italy
HungarianGovernment of National Unity (1944–1945) – The pro-Nazi regime of Prime MinisterFerenc Szálasi supported by the pro-German, antisemitic fascistArrow Cross Party was a German puppet regime. Szálasi was installed by the Germans afterAdolf Hitler launchedOperation Panzerfaust and had the Hungarian Regent, AdmiralMiklós Horthy, removed and placed under house arrest. Horthy was forced to abdicate in favor of Szálasi. Szálasi fought on even afterBudapest fell and Hungary was completely overrun.
Vichy France (1940–1942/4) – The Vichy French regime ofPhilippe Pétain had limited autonomy from 1940 to 1942, and depended heavily on Germany. The Vichy government controlled many of France's colonies and theunoccupied part of France and enjoyed international recognition. In 1942, the Germans occupied the portion of France administered by the Vichy government inCase Anton and installed a new leadership underPierre Laval, ending much of Vichy France's international legitimacy.
Monaco (1942–1944) – In 1943, theItalian Army invaded and occupied Monaco, setting up a fascist administration. Shortly thereafter, followingBenito Mussolini's deposal in Italy, theGerman Army occupied Monaco and began deporting the Jewish population. Among them wasRené Blum, founder of Monaco'sBallet de l'Opera, who died in a Nazi extermination camp.
Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945) – The Independent State of Croatia (Nezavisna Država Hrvatska or NDH) was a German and Italian puppet regime. On paper, the NDH was a kingdom under KingTomislav II (Aimone, Duke of Spoleto) of theHouse of Savoy,[17] but Tomislav II was only a figurehead in Croatia who never exercised any real power, withAnte Pavelić a somewhat independent leader (Poglavnik), though staying obedient to Rome and Berlin.
States and governments under the control of Germany and Italy
Lokot Republic (1941–1943) – The Lokot Republic underKonstantin Voskoboinik andBronislav Kaminski was a semi-autonomous region in Nazi-occupied Russia under a collaborationist administration. The republic covered the area of severalraions ofOryol andKursk Oblasts. It was directly associated with the Russian Liberation People's Army (Russkaya Osvoboditelnaya Narodnaya Armiya or RONA), known as theKaminski Brigade.
Italian Social Republic (1943–1945, known also as the Republic of Salò) – GeneralPietro Badoglio and King Victor Emmanuel III withdrew Italy from theAxis powers and moved the government toSouthern Italy, already controlled by theAllies. In response, the Germans occupiedNorthern Italy and founded the Italian Social Republic (Repubblica Sociale Italiana or RSI) with Benito Mussolini as its "Head of State" and "Minister of Foreign Affairs". While the RSI government had some trappings of an independent state, it was completely dependent both economically and politically on Germany.
The Axis demand for oil and the concern of the Allies that Germany would look to the oil-rich Middle East for a solution, caused the invasion of Iraq by the United Kingdom and theinvasion of Iran by the UK and the Soviet Union. Pro-Axis governments in both Iraq and Iran were removed and replaced with Allied-dominated governments.
Kingdom of Iraq (1941–1947) – Iraq was important to the United Kingdom because of its position on the route to India. Iraq also could provide strategic oil reserves. But due to the UK's weakness early in the war, Iraq backed away from the pre-warAnglo-Iraqi Alliance. On 1 April 1941, theHashemite monarchy in Iraq was overthrown by apro-Germancoup d'état underRashid Ali. The Rashid Ali regime began negotiations with theAxis powers and military aid was quickly sent toMosul via Vichy French-controlled Syria. The Germans provided a squadron of twin-engine fighters and a squadron of medium bombers. The Italians provided a squadron of biplane fighters. In mid-April 1941, a brigade of the10th Indian Infantry Division landed atBasra (Operation Sabine). On 30 April, British forces atRAF Habbaniya were besieged by a numerically inferior Iraqi force. On 2 May, the British launched pre-emptive airstrikes against the Iraqis and theAnglo-Iraqi War began. By the end of May, the siege of RAF Habbaniya was lifted,Fallujah was taken,Baghdad was surrounded by British forces, and the pro-German government of Rashid Ali collapsed. Rashid Ali and his supporters fled the country. The Hashemite monarchy under KingFaisal II was restored, and declared war on the Axis powers in January 1942. British and Commonwealth forces remained in Iraq until 26 October 1947.[20]
Imperial State of Iran (1941–1943) – German workers in Iran caused both the UK and the Soviet Union to question Iran's neutrality. In addition, Iran's geographical position was important to the Allies. As a result, the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran (Operation Countenance) was launched in August 1941. The following month,Reza Shah Pahlavi was forced to abdicate his throne and went into exile. He was replaced by his sonMohammad Reza Pahlavi, who was willing to declare war on the Axis powers. By January 1942, the UK and the Soviet Union agreed to end their occupation of Iran six months after the end of the war.
Puppet states later absorbed into the Soviet Union
Tuvan People's Republic[disputed –discuss] (1921–1944) – Achieved independence fromChina by means of local nationalist revolutions only to come under the domination of the Soviet Union in the 1920s. In 1944, Tannu Tuva was absorbed into the USSR.
Finnish Democratic Republic (1939–1940) – The Finnish Democratic Republic was a short-lived republic in the parts of Finland that were occupied by the Soviet Union during theWinter War. It was also known as the "Terijoki Government", asTerijoki was the first town captured by the Soviets. The Finnish Democratic Republic was intended to govern Finland after Soviet conquest.[21][22]
Republic of Mahabad (1946–1947) – Officially known as the Republic of Kurdistan and established in several provinces of northwestern Iran, or what is known asIranian Kurdistan and was a short-lived republic that sought Kurdish autonomy within the limits of the Iranian state. Iran retook control in December and the leaders of the state were executed in March 1947 inMahabad.
Other states under Soviet influence
Yugoslavia was a communist state closely linked to the Soviet Union, but Yugoslavia retained autonomy within its own borders. After theTito–Stalin split in 1948, the relationship between the two countries deteriorated significantly. Yugoslavia was expelled from the international organisations of theEastern Bloc. After Stalin's death and a period ofde-Stalinization byNikita Khrushchev, peace was restored, but the relationship between the two countries was never completely mended. Yugoslavia continued to pursue independent policies and became the founding member of theNon-Aligned Movement.[citation needed]
In some cases, the process ofdecolonisation has been managed by the decolonising power to create aneo-colony, that is a nominally independent state whose economy and politics permits continued foreign domination. Neo-colonies are not normally considered puppet states.[citation needed]
The principal purpose of these states was to remove South African citizenship from the Xhosa, Tswana, and Venda peoples, and so provide grounds for denying them their democratic rights. All four Bantustans were reincorporated into a democratic South Africa on 27 April 1994, under anew constitution.[citation needed]
The South African authorities established ten Bantustans inSouth West Africa (present-dayNamibia), thenillegally occupied by South Africa, in the late 1960s and early 1970s in accordance with theOdendaal Commission. Three of them were granted self-rule. These Bantustans were replaced with separate ethnicity-based governments in 1980.[citation needed]
Multiple often unrecognised states had been described or accused of being a puppet state of other countries.
United States
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan – Many, including theTaliban who now comprise the country's current government,[33] considered the former Islamic Republic of Afghanistan to have been a U.S. puppet state.[34]
Republic of Iraq (Interim Government andCoalition Provisional Authority) – Critics of the Iraqi Interim Government argued that it existed only at the pleasure of the United States and other coalition countries and considered it a U.S. puppet government.[35] This criticism was also extended to politicians active within the Interim Government, with the media suggesting thatAyad Allawi, was Washington's puppet.[36][37] The CPA's economy was dominated by American influence. The CPA began todismantle Iraq's centrally planned economy.Paul Bremer, chief executive of the CPA, planned to restructure Iraq's state owned economy withfree market thinking. Bremer dropped thecorporate tax rate from around 45% to aflat tax rate of 15% and allowed foreign corporations torepatriate all profits earned in Iraq. Opposition from senior Iraqi officials, together with the poor security situation, meant that Bremer's privatisation plan was not implemented during his tenure,[38] though his orders remained in place. CPA Order 39 laid out the framework for full privatisation in Iraq and permitted 100% foreign ownership of Iraqi assets and strengthened the positions of foreign businesses and investors. Critics likeNaomi Klein argued that CPA Order 39 was designed to create as favourable an environment for foreign investors as possible, which would allow U.S. corporations to dominate Iraq's economy.[39] Also controversial wasCPA Order 17 which granted all foreign contractors operating in Iraqimmunity from "Iraqilegal process," effectively granting immunity from any kind of suit, civil or criminal, for actions the contractors engaged in within Iraq.[40] CPA Order 49 also provided significanttax cuts for corporations operating within Iraq by reducing the rate from a maximum of 40% to a maximum of just 15% on income. Furthermore, corporations who collaborated with the CPA wereexempted from having to pay any tax.[41]
Armenia
Artsakh – A former self-declared independent state heavily populated by Armenians, it was internationally recognised as part ofAzerbaijan. Russian peacekeepers controlled theLachin corridor that allowed traffic to reach Armenia, on which it was heavily dependent.[42][43]
Abkhazian PresidentAlexander Ankvab with Transnistrian PresidentYevgeny Shevchuk in 2013. Both Abkhazia and Transnistria have been described as puppet states of Russia.
Abkhazia is considered a puppet state that is dependent on Russia.[46][47] The economy of Abkhazia is heavily integrated with Russia and uses theRussian ruble as its currency. About half of Abkhazia's state budget is financed with aid money from Russia.[48] Most Abkhazians haveRussian passports.[49] Russia maintains a 3,500-strong force in Abkhazia with its headquarters inGudauta, a former Soviet military base on theBlack Sea coast[50] and the borders of Abkhazia are protected by Russian paratroopers.[51]
South Ossetia has declared independence but its ability to maintain independence is solely based on Russian troops deployed on its territory. As South Ossetia is landlocked between Russia andGeorgia, from which it seceded, it has relied on Russia for economic and logistical support, as all of its exports and imports and air and road traffic is only with Russia. Former President of South OssetiaEduard Kokoity claimed he would like South Ossetia eventually to become a part of the Russian Federation through reunification withNorth Ossetia.[52]
Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus – According to theEuropean Court of Human Rights, theRepublic of Cyprus remains the sole legitimate government in Cyprus, and the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus should be considered as a puppet state under Turkish control.[59][60] Its isolation,Turkish military presence, and heavy dependence on Turkish support mean thatTurkey has a high level of control over the country's decision-making processes. That has led to some experts stating that it runs as an effective puppet state of Turkey.[61][62][63] Other experts, however, have pointed out the independent nature of elections and appointments in Northern Cyprus and disputes between the Turkish Cypriot and Turkish governments and concluded that "puppet state" is not an accurate description for Northern Cyprus.[64][65]
^Raič, David (2002).Statehood and the Law of Self-Determination. Kluwer Law International. p. 81.ISBN90-411-1890-X. Retrieved13 September 2017.In most cases, puppet States are created by the occupant during occupation of a State, for the purpose of circumventing the former's international responsibility regarding the violation of the rights of the occupied State.
^Lemkin, Raphaël (2008) [1944].Axis Rule in Occupied Europe: Laws of Occupation, Analysis of Government, Proposals for Redress. The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd. p. 11.ISBN978-1-58477-901-8. Retrieved30 June 2019.The creation of puppet states or of puppet governments does not give them any special status under international law in the occupied territory. Therefore the puppet governments and puppet states have no greater rights in the occupied territory than the occupant himself. Their actions should be considered as actions of the occupant and hence subject to the limitations of the Hague Regulations.
^Shapiro, Stephen (2003).Ultra Hush-hush. Annick Press. p. 38.ISBN1-55037-778-7.Puppet state: a country whose government is being controlled by the government of another country, much as a puppeteer controls the strings on a marionette
^Harper, Douglas."puppet (n.)".Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved1 June 2014.
^Jowett, Phillip S.,Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, pp. 7–36.
^Jowett, Phillip S.,Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, pp. 49–57, 88–89.
^Jowett, Phillip S.,Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, pp. 44–47, 85–87.
^Jowett, Phillip S.,Rays of The Rising Sun, Armed Forces of Japan’s Asian Allies 1931–45, Volume I: China & Manchuria, 2004. Helion & Co. Ltd., 26 Willow Rd., Solihull, West Midlands, England, pp. 63–89.
^Friedman, Francine (2004).Bosnia and Herzegovina: a polity on the brink. Routledge. p. 130.ISBN0415274354. "...nominally Croatia was ruled by the Italian Duke of Spoleto styled as King"
^Taqoosh, Muhammad Sahil (2015).تاريخ العراق (الحديث والمعاصر) [Modern and contemporary history of Iraq] (in Arabic). Dar Al-Nafaes. pp. 190–191.
^Tanner, Väinö (1956).The Winter War: Finland Against Russia, 1939–1940, Volume 312. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press. p. 114.
^Trotter, William (2013).A Frozen Hell: The Russo-Finnish Winter War of 1939–1940. Algonquin Books. pp. 58, 61.
^abcThe Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (Postcommunist States and Nations) David J. Smith from Front MatterISBN0-415-28580-1
^abcMälksoo, Lauri (2003).Illegal Annexation and State Continuity: The Case of the Incorporation of the Baltic States by the USSR. Leiden – Boston: Brill.ISBN90-411-2177-3.
^Estonia: Identity and Independence: Translated into English (On the Boundary of Two Worlds: Identity, Freedom, and Moral Imagination in the Baltics) Jean-Jacques Subrenat, David Cousins, Alexander Harding, Richard C. Waterhouse. p. 246.ISBN90-420-0890-3
^Mockler, Antony (1987). The New Mercenaries: The History of the Hired Soldier from the Congo to the Seychelles. New York: Paragon House Publishers. pp. 37–55.ISBN0-913729-72-8.
^Dodd, Clement Henry (1993).The political, social and economic development of Northern Cyprus. Eothen Press. p. 377.ISBN9780906719183.In short, the electorate of Northern Cyprus votes freely for its political leaders and gives them substantial support. Nor is Northern Cyprus a Turkish puppet state. Mr Denktas and the Turkish-Cypriot case have a powerful following in Turkey...
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