| Punti–Hakka Clan Wars | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Date | 1855–1868 | ||
| Location | |||
| Caused by | Red Turban Rebellion (1854–1856) | ||
| Resulted in | Significant Hakka population moved toGuangxi, as well as emigration to other parts of the world | ||
| Parties | |||
| Casualties | |||
| Death | 500,000[1]–1 million+[2] | ||
ThePunti–Hakka Clan Wars were anethnic conflict between theHakka and theCantonese, bothHan Chinese subgroups, fought largely in theGuangdong region of China which was then under theQing Empire. Occurring between 1855 and 1868, the fighting was most intense in thePearl River Delta, especially inToi Shan of theSze Yup counties. The wars resulted in up to one million deaths and the displacement of many more civilians.[2]
| Punti–Hakka Clan Wars | |||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Traditional Chinese | 土客械鬥 | ||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 土客械斗 | ||||||||||||||
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The origin of the ethnic groupPunti (本地;Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Pún-thi) literally means "natives" while Hakka (客家;Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: Hak-kâ) literally means "guest family". ThePunti are also referred to by the language they speak,Yue Chinese. The origins of the conflict lay in resentment of the Cantonese (Punti is a Cantoneseendonym of the Cantonese people) towards theHakka people, whose dramatic population growth threatened the Cantonese. In response, the Hakka were marginalized and resentful, as they were forced to inhabit the hills and waterways, rather than the fertile plains.[3]
TheCantonese-speakingPunti were protective of their fertile lands and so newcomers were pushed to the outer fringes of the fertile plains, or they settled in more mountainous regions. During the 19th century, the tension between the two groups (the Hakkas had by then been settled for several hundred years) led to a series skirmishes in thePearl River Delta, known as thePunti–Hakka Clan Wars; ThePunti are better known as the Cantonese people today.[3]
During theQing conquest of the Ming,Ming loyalists underKoxinga established a rump state and a regional office for theMing dynasty inTaiwan in the hopes of eventually retakingChina proper.[4][5] In an attempt to defeat Koxinga and his men without war, theKangxi Emperor strengthened thesea ban (haijin) in 1661 and issued the order for theGreat Clearance of the southeastern coast.Han Chinese, especially the ethnicTanka, who were living off the coast ofShandong toGuangdong were ordered to destroy their property and to move 30 to50li (about 16–31 km or 9.9–19.3 mi) inland upon pain of death to deprive the Taiwan-basedanti-Qing loyalists of support or targets to raid. The governors and viceroys of the affected provinces submitted scathing memorials, and the policy was reversed after eight years. In 1669 and 1671, however, strong typhoons destroyed what few settlements existed.[3]
As far fewerPunti returned to the abandoned lands than had been expected, the Qing ruler decided to provide incentives to repopulate these areas. The most visible of those who responded were the Hakka. For some time, thePunti and the Hakka lived together peacefully. As the population of Guangdong soared, life became increasingly difficult, and unrest broke out, such as theRed Turban Rebellion, which was led by the Cantonese who attackedHo Yun andFat Shan.[3]
During theRed Turban Rebellion inGuangzhou, the Hakkas had helped the imperial army raidPunti villages to kill the rebels and any real or suspected sympathisers, including villagers who had been forced to pay taxes to the Red Turbans. That precipitated open hostility between the Hakka and thePunti, with thePunti attacking Hakka villages in revenge.[3]
Battles raged in which both sides fortified their villages with walls, destroyed bridges and roads, and raised fighting men. The Cantonese were armed with the help of their relatives inBritish Hong Kong and theChinese diaspora who lived abroad. Some captives were sold toCuba andSouth America ascoolies via Hong Kong andPortuguese Macau, and others were sold to the brothels of Macau. Throughout the war, 500,000 perished from fighting in which thousands of villages were destroyed, but an even greater number perished inepidemics.[1] The Punti significantly outnumbered the Hakka, whose losses were therefore more extensive. The population share of Hakka in the Sze Yup area dropped to 3%, with many relocating toGuangxi.
As a result of the wars and widespread violence, many Chinese civilians chose to emigrate during the 19th century, with significant numbers moving toSoutheast Asia andNorth America.[6][7]