Punjab grew out of the settlements along the five rivers, which served as an important route to theNear East as early as the ancientIndus Valley civilization, dating back to 3000 BC,[4] followed bymigrations of theIndo-Aryan peoples. Agriculture has been the chief economic feature of the Punjab and formed the foundation ofPunjabi culture.[4] The Punjab emerged as an important agricultural region, especially following theGreen Revolution during the mid-1960s to the mid-1970s, and has been described as the "breadbasket of both India and Pakistan."[4]
The name Punjab is ofPersian origin, with its two parts (پنج,panj, 'five' andآب,āb, 'water') being cognates of theSanskrit wordsपञ्च,pañca, 'five' andअप्,áp, 'water', of the same meaning.[3][13] The wordpañjāb is thus calque of Indo-Aryan "pañca-áp" and means "The Land of Five Waters", referring to the riversJhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Sutlej, andBeas.[14] All aretributaries of theIndus River, the Sutlej being the largest. References to a land of five rivers may be found in theMahabharata, in which one of the regions is named asPanchanada (Sanskrit:पञ्चनद,romanized: pañca-nada,lit. 'five rivers').[15][16] Earlier, the Punjab was known asSapta Sindhu in theRigveda orHapta Hendu inAvesta, translating into "The Land of Seven Rivers", with the other two being Indus andKabul.[17] The ancientGreeks referred to the region asPentapotamía (Greek:Πενταποταμία), which has the same meaning as that of Punjab.[18][19][20]
The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, theIndus Valley Civilization which flourished from about 3000 BC and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following theIndo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 BC and 500 BC.[21] Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known asMahajanapadas.[21] The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in the Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly theMahabharata.[21] The epic battles described in theMahabharata are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab. TheGandharas,Kambojas,Trigartas,Andhra,Pauravas,Bahlikas (Bactrian settlers of the Punjab),Yaudheyas, and others sided with theKauravas in the great battle fought atKurukshetra.[22] According to Fauja Singh and L.M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab."[23]
Invasions of Alexander the Great (c. 4th century BCE)
One of the first known kings of ancient Punjab,King Porus, fought against Alexander the Great. His surrender is depicted in this 1865 engraving byAlonzo Chappel.
The earliest known notable local king of this region was known asKing Porus, who fought the famousBattle of the Hydaspes againstAlexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between riversHydaspes (Jhelum) andAcesines (Chenab);Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities.[24] He (alongsideAbisares) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom ofTaxila which was ruled by his extended family.[24] When the armies of Alexander crossed the Indus in its eastward migration, probably inUdabhandapura, he was greeted by the ruler of Taxila,Omphis.[24] Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused.[24] This led Alexander to seek for a face-off with Porus.[24] Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BCE; the exact site remains unknown.[24] The battle is thought to be resulted in a decisiveGreek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources that were exaggerated.[24]
Alexander later founded two cities—Nicaea at the site of victory andBucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory ofhis horse, who died soon after the battle.[24][c] Later,tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with asarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.[24][25] Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.[24] When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".[26] Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.[27][28][29] Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled to the northeast of Porus' kingdom.[27]
After Alexander's death in 323 BC,Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in 321 BC,Antipater became the new regent.[30] According toDiodorus, Antipater recognized Porus's authority over the territories along theIndus River. However,Eudemus, who had served as Alexander'ssatrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.[31]
Chandragupta Maurya, with the aid ofKautilya, had established his empire around 320 BC. The early life of Chandragupta Maurya is not clear. Kautilya enrolled the young Chandragupta in theuniversity at Taxila to educate him in the arts, sciences, logic, mathematics, warfare, and administration.Megasthenes' account, as it has survived in Greek texts that quote him, states that Alexander the Great and Chandragupta met, which if true would mean his rule started earlier than 321 BC. As Alexander never crossed theBeas River, so his territory probably lay in thePunjab region.[citation needed] With the help of the small Janapadas of Punjab, he had gone on to conquer much of the North West Indian subcontinent.[32] He then defeated the Nanda rulers inPataliputra to capture the throne. Chandragupta Maurya fought Alexander's successor in the east,Seleucus when the latter invaded. In a peace treaty, Seleucus ceded all territories west of the Indus and offered a marriage, including a portion ofBactria, while Chandragupta granted Seleucus 500 elephants.[citation needed] The chief of the Mauryan military was also always aYaudheyan warrior according to the Bijaygadh Pillar inscription, which states that the Yaudheyas elected their own chief who also served as the general for the Mauryans.[33][34] The Mauryan military was also made up vastly of men from the Punjab Janapadas.[35]
Chandragupta's rule was very well organised. The Mauryans had an autocratic and centralised administration system, aided by a council of ministers, and also a well-established espionage system. Much of Chandragupta's success is attributed toChanakya, the author of theArthashastra. Much of the Mauryan rule had a strong bureaucracy that had regulated tax collection, trade and commerce, industrial activities, mining, statistics and data, maintenance of public places, and upkeep of temples.[citation needed]
In the 9th century, theHindu Shahi dynasty originating from the region ofOddiyana,[36][37][38] replaced the Taank kingdom, ruling Western Punjab along with eastern Afghanistan.[21] The tribe of theGakhars/Khokhars, formed a large part of the Hindu Shahi army according to the Persian historianFirishta.[39] The most notable rulers of the empire were Lalliya, Bhimadeva and Jayapala who were accredited for military victories.
Lalliya had reclaimed the territory at and around Kabul between 879 and 901 CE after it had been lost under his predecessor to theSaffarid dynasty.[38][page needed] He was described as a fearsome Shahi. Two of his ministers reconstructed by Rahman as Toramana and Asata are said to of have taken advantage ofAmr al-Layth's preoccupation with rebellions in Khorasan, by successfully raidingGhazna around 900 CE.[38][page needed]
After a defeat in Eastern Afghanistan suffered on the Shahi ally Lawik, Bhimadeva mounted a combined attack around 963 CE.[38][page needed]Abu Ishaq Ibrahim was expelled from Ghazna and Shahi-Lawik strongholds were restored in Kabul and adjacent areas.[38][page needed] This victory appears to have been commemorated in the Hund Slab Inscription (HSI).[38][page needed]
TheTurkicGhaznavids in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years in Western Punjab, gradually declining as a power until theGhuridconquest of Lahore byMuhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid rulerKhusrau Malik.[41] Following the death ofMuhammad of Ghor in 1206 by Punjabi assassins near the Jhelum river, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by theDelhi Sultanate.
During Ghazi Malik's reign, in 1321 he sent his eldest son Jauna Khan, later known asMuhammad bin Tughlaq, toDeogir to plunder the Hindu kingdoms of Arangal and Tilang (now part ofTelangana). His first attempt was a failure.[42] Four months later, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq sent large army reinforcements for his son asking him to attempt plundering Arangal and Tilang again.[43] This time Jauna Khan succeeded and Arangal fell, it was renamed to Sultanpur, and all plundered wealth, state treasury and captives were transferred from the captured kingdom to the Delhi Sultanate.The Muslim aristocracy in Lukhnauti (Bengal) invited Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq to extend his coup and expand eastwards into Bengal by attackingShamsuddin Firoz Shah, which he did over 1324–1325 CE,[42] after placing Delhi under control of his son Ulugh Khan, and then leading his army to Lukhnauti. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq succeeded in this campaign.
After his father's death in 1325 CE, Muhammad bin Tughlaq assumed power and his rule saw the empire expand to most of the Indian subcontinent, its peak in terms of geographical reach.[44] He attacked and plunderedMalwa,Gujarat,Lakhnauti,Chittagong,Mithila and many other regions in India.[45] His distant campaigns were expensive, although each raid and attack on non-Muslim kingdoms brought new looted wealth and ransom payments from captured people. The extended empire was difficult to retain, and rebellions became commonplace all over the Indian subcontinent.[46] Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in March 1351[47] while trying to chase and punish people for rebellion and their refusal to pay taxes inSindh andGujarat.[48]
After Muhammad bin Tughlaq's death, the Tughlaq empire was in a state of disarray with many regions assuming independence; it was at this point thatFiruz Shah Tughlaq, Ghazi Malik's nephew, took reign. His father's name was Rajab (the younger brother of Ghazi Malik) who had the titleSipahsalar. His mother Naila was a Punjabi Bhatti princess (daughter of Rana Mal) fromDipalpur andAbohar according to the historianWilliam Crooke.[49][50] The southern states had drifted away from the Sultanate and there were rebellions in Gujarat and Sindh, while "Bengal asserted its independence." He led expeditions against Bengal in 1353 and 1358. He capturedCuttack, desecrated theJagannath Temple, Puri, and forced Raja Gajpati of Jajnagar inOrissa to pay tribute.[51][52] He also laid siege to theKangra Fort and forced Nagarkot to pay tribute.[53] During this time, Tatar Khan ofGreater Khorasan attacked Punjab, but he was defeated and his face slashed by the sword given byFeroz Shah Tughlaq to RajaKailas Pal who ruled the Nagarkot region in Punjab.[54]
FollowingTimur's 1398 sack ofDelhi,[56] he appointedKhizr Khan as deputy ofMultan (Punjab).[57] He held Lahore, Dipalpur, Multan and Upper Sindh.[58][59] Khizr Khan captured Delhi on 28 May 1414 thereby establishing the Sayyid dynasty.[57] Khizr Khan did not take up the title ofsultan, but continued the fiction of his allegiance to Timur asRayat-i-Ala(vassal) of theTimurids - initially that of Timur, and later his sonShah Rukh.[60][61] After the accession of Khizr Khan, the Punjab,Uttar Pradesh and Sindh were reunited under the Delhi Sultanate, where he spent his time subduing rebellions.[62] Punjab was the powerbase of Khizr Khan and his successors as the bulk of the Delhi army during their reigns came fromMultan andDipalpur.[63]
Khizr Khan was succeeded by his sonMubarak Shah after his death on 20 May 1421. Mubarak Shah referred to himself asMuizz-ud-Din Mubarak Shah on his coins, removing the Timurid name with the name of the Caliph, and declared himself a Shah.[64][65] He defeated the advancingHoshang Shah Ghori, ruler ofMalwa Sultanate and forced him to pay heavy tribute early in his reign.[66] Mubarak Shah also put down the rebellion ofJasrath Khokhar and managed to fend off multiple invasions by the Timurids of Kabul.[67]
The last ruler of the Sayyids,Ala-ud-Din, voluntarily abdicated the throne of the Delhi Sultanate in favour ofBahlul Khan Lodi on 19 April 1451, and left for Badaun, where he died in 1478.[68]
In 1445, Sultan Qutbudin, chief ofLangah (aJatZamindar tribe),[69][70][71][72] established theLangah Sultanate inMultan after the fall of theSayyid dynasty. Husseyn Langah I (reigned 1456–1502) was the second ruler of Langah Sultanate. He undertook military campaigns in Punjab and capturedChiniot andShorkot from the Lodis. Shah Husayn successfully repulsed attempted invasion by the Lodis led byTatar Khan andBarbak Shah, as well as his daughter Zeerak Rumman.[12]
TheMughals came to power in the early 16th century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital atLahore. During the Mughal era,Saadullah Khan, born into a family of Punjabi agriculturalists[73] belonging to theThaheem tribe[74] fromChiniot[75] remainedgrand vizier (or Prime Minister) of the Mughal Empire in the period 1645–1656.[75] Other prominent Muslims from Punjab who rose to nobility during the Mughal Era includeWazir Khan,[76]Adina Beg Arain,[77] andShahbaz Khan Kamboh.[78] The Mughal Empire ruled the region until it was severely weakened in the eighteenth century.[21] As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region.[21] Contested by theMarathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of themisls, who expanded and established the Sikh Confederacy as the Mughals and Afghans weakened, ultimately ruling the Punjab,Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and territories north into theHimalayas.[21]
Following the disintegration of the Mughal Empire, the shrine'sDīwān was able to forge a political independent state centered on Pakpattan.[79] In 1757,Dīwān 'Abd as-Subḥān gathered an army of hisJatmurīds, attacked the Raja ofBikaner, and thereby expanded the shrine's territorial holdings for the first time east of the Sutlej.[79] Around 1776, theDīwān, supported mainly by hisWattumurīds, successfully repelled an attack by the SikhNakai Misl, resulting in the death of the Nakai leader,Heera Singh Sandhu.[79]
In the 19th century, MaharajahRanjit Singh established theSikh Empire based in the Punjab.[85] The empire existed from 1799, when Ranjit Singh capturedLahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in theSecond Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of theKhalsa from a collection of autonomousSikhmisls.[86][87] At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from theKhyber Pass in the west to westernTibet in the east, and fromMithankot in the south toKashmir in the north. It was divided into four provinces:Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital;Multan, also in Punjab;Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5 million in 1831 (making it the19th most populous country at the time),[88] it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent tobe annexed by theBritish Empire.
The Sikh Empire ruled the Punjab until the British annexed it in 1849 following theFirst andSecond Anglo-Sikh Wars.[89] Most of the Punjabi homeland formed a province of British India, though a number of smallprincely states retained local rulers who recognized British authority.[21] The Punjab with its rich farmlands became one of the most important colonial assets.[21] Lahore was a noted center of learning and culture, andRawalpindi became an important military installation.[21] Most Punjabis supported the British duringWorld War I, providing men and resources to the war effort even though the Punjab remained a source of anti colonial activities.[90]: 163 Disturbances in the region increased as the war continued.[21] At the end of the war, high casualty rates, heavy taxation, inflation, and a widespread influenza epidemic disrupted Punjabi society.[21] In 1919, ColonelReginald Dyer ordered troops under command to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs inAmritsar. TheJallianwala massacre fueled theIndian independence movement.[21] Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.[21] When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.[21] Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society, and Muslim leaders in Lahore passed a resolution to work for a Muslim Pakistan, making the Punjab region a center of growing conflict between Indian and Pakistani nationalists.[21] At the end of the war, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.[21]
Another major consequence of partition was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across Punjab owing to the new international border that cut through the province. This rapid demographic shift was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scalereligious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographerTim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately becameIndian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately becamePakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[96]
The geographical definition of the term "Punjab" has changed over time. In the 16th centuryMughal Empire it referred to a relatively smaller area between theIndus and theSutlej rivers.[97][98]
At its height in the first half of the 19th century, the Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km2).[99][100][101]
The Punjab was a region straddling India and the AfghanDurrani Empire. The following modern-day political divisions made up the historical Punjab region during the Sikh Empire:
After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by theEast India Company to launch theFirst andSecond Anglo-Sikh Wars. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separateprincely states and theprovince of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was formed in Lahore as a direct representative ofthe Crown.[90]: 221
In British India, until thePartition of India in 1947, thePunjab Province was geographically a triangular tract of country of which theIndus River and its tributary theSutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being theLower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it fromKashmir andTibet. On the west it was separated from theNorth-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border ofDera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided fromBaluchistan by theSulaiman Range. To the south laySindh andRajputana, while on the east the riversJumna andTons separated it from theUnited Provinces.[111] In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.
In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: theNorth-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:[112]: 2 [113]: 4
The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party–led independence movement.[114] Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most activeNational Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to theAkali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported theMuslim League.[114]
Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided intoWest Punjab Legislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.[115]
Historically,Lahore has been the capital of the Punjab region and continues to be the most populous city in the region, with a population of 11 million for the city proper.Faisalabad is the 2nd most populous city and largest industrial hub in this region. Other major cities areRawalpindi,Gujranwala,Multan,Ludhiana,Amritsar,Jalandhar, andChandigarh are the other cities in Punjab with a city-proper population of over a million.
The climate has significant impact on the economy of Punjab, particularly for agriculture in the region. Climate is not uniform over the whole region, as the areas adjacent to the Himalayas generally receive heavier rainfall than those at a distance.[116]
There are three main seasons and two transitional periods. During the hot season, from mid-April to the end of June, the temperature may reach 49 °C (120 °F). Themonsoon season, from July to September, is a period of heavy rainfall, providing water for crops in addition to the supply from canals andirrigation systems. The transitional period after the monsoon season is cool and mild, leading to the winter season, when the temperature in January falls to 5 °C (41 °F) at night and 12 °C (54 °F) by day. During the transitional period from winter to the hot season, suddenhailstorms and heavy showers may occur, causing damage to crops.[117]
The major language isPunjabi, which is written in India with theGurmukhi script, and in Pakistan using theShahmukhi script.[127] ThePunjabi language has official status and is widely used in education and administration in Indian Punjab, whereas in Pakistani Punjab these roles are instead fulfilled by theUrdu language andPunjabi is seen as a vernacular language
Several languages closely related to Punjabi are spoken in the various parts of the region.Dogri,[128]Kangri,[129] and otherwestern Pahari dialects are spoken in the north-central and northeastern parts of the region, whileBagri[130] is spoken in south-central and southeastern sections. Meanwhile,Saraiki is generally spoken across a wide belt covering the southwest, while in the northwest there are large pockets containing speakers ofHindko andPahari-Pothwari.[131]
Rig Veda, the oldest known Hindu text, originated in the Punjab region.
The Punjab is predominantlyMuslim though Hinduism is the oldest of the religions practised by Punjabi people, however, the termHindu was also applied over a vast territory with much regional diversity.[132] Thehistorical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in the Punjab during theVedic period (1500–500 BC), centered primarily in the worship ofIndra.[133][134][135][136] The bulk of theRigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BCE,[137] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between theYamuna andGanges rivers. An ancient Indian law book called theManusmriti, developed by Brahmin Hindu priests, shaped Punjabi religious life from 200 BCE onward.[138]
Later, thespread of Buddhisim and Jainism in the Indian subcontinent saw the growth ofBuddhism andJainism in the Punjab.[139]Islam was introduced via southern Punjab in the 8th century, becoming the majority by the 16th century, via local conversion.[140][141] There was a small Jain community left in Punjab by the 16th century, while the Buddhist community had largely disappeared by the turn of the 10th century.[142] The region became predominantlyMuslim due to missionarySufi saints whosedargahs dot the landscape of the Punjab region.[143]
The rise ofSikhism in the 1700s saw some Punjabis, both Hindu and Muslim, accepting the new Sikh faith.[138][144] A number of Punjabis during thecolonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[138]
A number of Punjabis during thecolonial period of India became Christians, with all of these religions characterizing the religious diversity now found in the Punjab region.[145] Additionally during the colonial era, the practice ofreligious syncretism amongPunjabi Muslims andPunjabi Hindus was noted and documented by officials in census reports:
"In other parts of the Province, too, traces of Hindu festivals are noticeable among the Muhammadans. In the western Punjab,Baisakhi, the new year's day of the Hindus, is celebrated as an agricultural festival, by all Muhammadans, by racing bullocks yoked to the well gear, with the beat of tom-toms, and large crowds gather to witness the show, The race is called Baisakhi and is a favourite pastime in the well-irrigated tracts. Then the processions ofTazias, inMuharram, with the accompaniment of tom-toms, fencing parties and bands playing on flutes and other musical instruments (which is disapproved by the orthodox Muhammadans) and the establishment ofSabils (shelters where water andsharbat are served out) are clearly influenced by similar practices at Hindu festivals, while the illuminations on occasions like theChiraghan fair ofShalamar (Lahore) are no doubt practices answering to the holiday-making instinct of the converted Hindus."[112]: 174 "Besides actual conversion, Islam has had a considerable influence on the Hindu religion. The sects of reformers based on a revolt from the orthodoxy ofVarnashrama Dharma were obviously the outcome of the knowledge that a different religion could produce equally pious and right thinking men. Laxity in social restrictions also appeared simultaneously in various degrees and certain customs were assimilated to those of the Muhammadans. On the other hand the miraculous powers of Muhammadan saints were enough to attract the saint worshiping Hindus, to allegiance, if not to a total change of faith... TheShamsis are believers inShah Shamas Tabrez ofMultan, and follow theImam, for the time being, of theIsmailia sect ofShias... they belong mostly to theSunar caste and their connection with the sect is kept a secret, like Freemasonry. They pass as ordinary Hindus, but their devotion to the Imam is very strong."[112]: 130
In the present-day, the vast majority of Pakistani Punjabis are Sunni Muslim by faith, but also include significant minority faiths, such as Shia Muslims, Ahmadi Muslims,Hindus,Sikhs and Christians.
The historical region of Punjab produces a relatively high proportion of the food output from India and Pakistan.[citation needed] The region has been used for extensive wheat farming. In addition, rice, cotton,sugarcane, fruit, and vegetables are also grown.[168]
The agricultural output of the Punjab region in Pakistan contributes significantly to Pakistan's GDP. Both Indian and Pakistani Punjab is considered to have the best infrastructure of their respective countries. The Indian state of Punjab is currently the16th richest state or the eighth richest large state of India. Pakistani Punjab produces 68% of Pakistan's foodgrain production.[169] Its share of Pakistan's GDP has historically ranged from 51.8% to 54.7%.[170] and has the highest per capita of any province.
Called "The Granary of India" or "The Bread Basket of India", Indian Punjab produces 1% of theworld's rice, 2% of its wheat, and 2% of its cotton.[168] In 2001, it was recorded that farmers made up 39% of Indian Punjab's workforce.[171] In the Punjab region of Pakistan, 42.3% of the labour force is engaged in the agriculture sector.[172]
Alternatively, Punjab is also adding to the economy with the increase in employment of Punjab youth in theprivate sector. Government schemes such as 'Ghar Ghar Rozgar and Karobar Mission' have brought enhanced employability in the private sector. As of October 2019[update], more than 32,000 youths have been placed in different jobs and 12,000 have been skill-trained.[173]
^"Elections in Bihar, Campaigning in Punjab to Woo Bihari Migrants". 4 October 2015.Archived from the original on 29 March 2023. Retrieved17 February 2024.Punjab, as per official estimates, is home to some two million migrants from Bihar. They are engaged in various jobs and occupations in Punjab. Of this, over 1.3 million are living in and around the industrial hub of Ludhiana.
^abH K Manmohan Siṅgh."The Punjab".The Encyclopedia of Sikhism, Editor-in-Chief Harbans Singh.Punjabi University, Patiala.Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved18 August 2015.
^Mookerji, Radhakumud (1 January 2016).Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 22.ISBN978-81-208-0433-3.Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved30 January 2023.Rhys Davids [Buddhist India p. 267] points out that 'it was from the Panjab that Chandragupta recruited the nucleus of the force with which he besieged and conquered Dhana Nanda'
^Tarn, William Woodthorpe (24 June 2010).The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press. p. 324.ISBN978-1-108-00941-6.Audumbaras, Trigartas, Kunindas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas - began to coin in the first century BC, which means that they had become independent kingdoms or republics; but the coins do not all tell the same story. Those of the two sounthernmost peoples begin somewhere about 100 BC and bear the legends 'Victory of the Arjunayanas' and (on their copper issue) 'Victory of the Yaudheyas', which point to their having won independence by the sword.
^Easton, Richard M. (2019).India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. University of California Press. p. 117.ISBN978-0520325128.The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...
^Fauja Singh (1972).History of the Punjab: A.D. 1000-1526. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. p. 152.Archived from the original on 1 May 2023. Retrieved9 July 2023.The Tughlaqs had close links with the Punjab . According to Firishta and Sujan Rai Bhandari, Tughlaq, the founder of the dynasty, was born in the Punjab to a Jat mother
^Gandhi, Rajmohan (2013).Punjab: A History from Aurangzeb to Mountbatten. New Delhi, India, Urbana,Illinois: Aleph Book Company. p. 1 ("Introduction").ISBN978-93-83064-41-0.
^Kenneth Pletcher, ed. (2010).The Geography of India: Sacred and Historic Places. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 199.ISBN978-1-61530-202-4.The word's origin can perhaps be traced to panca nada, Sanskrit for "five rivers" and the name of a region mentioned in the ancient epic the Mahabharata.
^Rajesh Bala (2005). "Foreign Invasions and their Effect on Punjab". In Sukhdial Singh (ed.).Punjab History Conference, Thirty-seventh Session, March 18–20, 2005: Proceedings. Punjabi University. p. 80.ISBN978-81-7380-990-3.The word Punjab is a compound of two words-Panj (Five) and aab (Water), thus signifying the land of five waters or rivers. This origin can perhaps be traced to panch nada, Sanskrit for "Five rivers" the word used before the advent of Muslims with a knowledge of Persian to describe the meeting point of the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers, before they joined the Indus.
^Grenet, Frantz (2005). "An Archaeologist's Approach to Avestan Geography". In Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh; Stewart, Sarah (eds.).Birth of the Persian Empire Volume I. I.B.Tauris. p. 34.ISBN978-0-7556-2459-1.
^Lassen, Christian. 1827.Commentatio Geographica atque Historica de Pentapotamia IndicaArchived 18 November 2022 at theWayback Machine [A Geographical and Historical Commentary on Indian Pentapotamia]. Weber. p. 4:"That part of India which today we call by the Persian name ''Penjab'' is namedPanchanada in the sacred language of the Indians; either of which names may be rendered in Greek by Πενταποταμια. The Persian origin of the former name is not at all in doubt, although the words of which it is composed are both Indian and Persian.... But, in truth, that final word is never, to my knowledge, used by the Indians in proper names compounded in this way; on the other hand, there exist multiple Persian names which end with that word, e.g.,Doab andNilab. Therefore, it is probable that the name Penjab, which is today found in all geographical books, is of more recent origin and is to be attributed to the Muslim kings of India, among whom the Persian language was mostly in use. That the Indian name Panchanada is ancient and genuine is evident from the fact that it is already seen in theRamayana andMahabharata, the most ancient Indian poems, and that no other exists in addition to it among the Indians; forPanchála, which English translations of theRamayana render with Penjab...is the name of another region, entirely distinct from Pentapotamia...."[whose translation?]
^Latif, Syad Muhammad (1891).History of the Panjáb from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time. Calcultta Central Press Company. p. 1.The Panjáb, the Pentapotamia of the Greek historians, the north-western region of the empire of Hindostán, derives its name from two Persian words,panj (five), anáb (water), having reference to the five rivers which confer on the country its distinguishing features."
^Khalid, Kanwal (2015)."Lahore of Pre Historic Era"(PDF).Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan.52 (2): 73.Archived(PDF) from the original on 11 August 2022. Retrieved20 January 2019.The earliest mention of five rivers in the collective sense was found in Yajurveda and a word Panchananda was used, which is a Sanskrit word to describe a land where five rivers meet. [...] In the later period, the wordPentapotamia was used by the Greeks to identify this land. (Penta means 5 and potamia, water ___ the land of five rivers) Muslim Historians implied the word "Punjab" for this region. Again, it was not a new word because in Persian-speaking areas, there are references of this name given to any particular place where five rivers or lakes meet.
^Buddha Parkash,Evolution of Heroic Tradition in Ancient Panjab, p 36.
^Joshi, L. M., and Fauja Singh.History of Panjab, Vol I. p. 4.
^abcdefghijBosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes".Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130.
^Holt, Frank Lee (2003).Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions. University of California Press.
^abBosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean".Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press.
^Anson, Edward M. (2013).Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues. Bloomsbury. p. 151.ISBN9781441193797.
^Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1969).Corporate Life in Ancient India. Firma K. L. Mukhopadhyay. p. 222.Archived from the original on 14 March 2023. Retrieved21 March 2023.
^Rahman, Abdul (2002)."New Light on the Khingal, Turk and the Hindu Sahis"(PDF).Ancient Pakistan.XV:37–42.Archived(PDF) from the original on 26 April 2021. Retrieved11 January 2023.The Hindu Śāhis were therefore neither Bhattis, or Janjuas, nor Brahmans. They were simply Uḍis/Oḍis. It can now be seen that the term Hindu Śāhi is a misnomer and, based as it is merely upon religious discrimination, should be discarded and forgotten. The correct name is Uḍi or Oḍi Śāhi dynasty.
^Meister, Michael W. (2005)."The Problem of Platform Extensions at Kafirkot North"(PDF).Ancient Pakistan.XVI:41–48.Archived(PDF) from the original on 1 February 2023. Retrieved11 January 2023.Rehman (2002: 41) makes a good case for calling the Hindu Śāhis by a more accurate name, "Uḍi Śāhis".
^Richard M. Eaton (2019).India in the Persianate Age: 1000–1765. University of California Press. p. 117.ISBN978-0520325128.The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan...
^Journal of Central Asia. Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University. 1992. p. 84. Retrieved30 July 2022.Sadullah Khan was the son of Amir Bakhsh a cultivator of Chiniot . He belongs to Jat family. He was born on Thursday, the 10th Safar 1000 A.H./1591 A.C.
^Koch, Ebba (2006).The complete Taj Mahal : and the riverfront gardens of Agra. Richard André. Barraud. London: Thames & Hudson. p. 45.ISBN978-0-500-34209-1.OCLC69022179.
^Amarinder Singh's The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar
^Grewal, J. S. (1998). "The Sikh empire (1799–1849) - Chapter 6".The Sikhs of the Punjab. The New Cambridge History of India (Revised ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 126–128.ISBN0-521-63764-3.
^abHibbert, Christopher (1980).The great mutiny: India 1857. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.ISBN978-0-14-004752-3.
^Talbot, Ian (2009). "Partition of India: The Human Dimension".Cultural and Social History.6 (4):403–410.doi:10.2752/147800409X466254.ISSN1478-0038.S2CID147110854.The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims.
^D'Costa, Bina (2011).Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 53.ISBN978-0415565660.
^J. S. Grewal (1998).The Sikhs of the Punjab. The New Cambridge History of India (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 1.ISBN978-0-521-63764-0.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved29 October 2019.
^Manning, Stephen (30 September 2020).Bayonet to Barrage Weaponry on the Victorian Battlefield. Pen & Sword Books Limited. p. 9.ISBN9781526777249.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved19 March 2023.The Sikh kingdom expanded from Tibet in the east to Kashmir in the west and from Sind in the south to the Khyber Pass in the north, an area of 200,000 square miles
^Barczewski, Stephanie (22 March 2016).Heroic Failure and the British. Yale University Press. p. 89.ISBN9780300186819.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved19 March 2023...the Sikh state encompassed over 200,000 square miles (518,000 sq km)
^Johnson, K. Paul (1994).The Masters Revealed: Madam Blavatsky and the Myth of the Great White Lodge (1st ed.). State University of New York Press. p. 128.ISBN978-0-7914-2063-8.
^Marshall, Julie G. (2012).Britain and Tibet 1765–1947 (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 116.ISBN978-0-415-59997-9.
^"Islamabad Climate Normals 1991–2020".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved17 September 2023.
^"Lahore Climate Normals 1991–2020".World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved17 September 2023.
^Wheeler, James Talboys (1874).The History of India from the Earliest Ages: Hindu Buddhist Brahmanical revival. N. Trübner. p. 330.Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved9 September 2022.The Punjab, to say the least, was less Brahmanical. It was an ancient centre of the worship of Indra, who was always regarded as an enemy by the Bráhmans; and it was also a stronghold of Buddhism.
^Virdee, Pippa (February 2018).From the Ashes of 1947. Cambridge University Press. p. 24.ISBN978-1-108-42811-8.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved30 January 2023.The Rig Veda and the Upanishads, which belonged to the Vedic religion, were a precursor of Hinduism, both of which were composed in Punjab.
^Michaels (2004, p. 38): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the rgveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions." Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992)."Vedic Hinduism"(PDF). Harvard University. p. 3.Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 April 2018. Retrieved5 August 2022.: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism." See alsoHalbfass 1991, pp. 1–2
^"In ancient Punjab, religion was fluid, not watertight, says Romila Thapar".The Indian Express. 3 May 2019.Archived from the original on 3 May 2019.Thapar said Buddhism was very popular in Punjab during the Mauryan and post-Mauryan period. Bookended between Gandhara in Taxila on the one side where Buddhism was practised on a large scale and Mathura on another side where Buddhism, Jainism and Puranic religions were practised, this religion flourished in the state. But after the Gupta period, Buddhism began to decline.
^Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014).The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. pp. 489–491.ISBN978-0-19-971354-7.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved23 November 2021.First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana).
^Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014).The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. p. 490.ISBN978-0-19-971354-7.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved23 November 2021.While Punjabi Hindu society was relatively well established, there was also a small but vibrant Jain community in the Punjab. Buddhist communities, however, had largely disappeared by the turn of the tenth century.
^Nicholls, Ruth J.; Riddell, Peter G. (31 July 2020).Insights into Sufism: Voices from the Heart. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.ISBN978-1-5275-5748-2.With the Muslim conquest of Punjab there was a flow of Sufis and other preachers who came to spread Islam. Much of the advance of Islam was due to these preachers.
Kumar, Sunil (2020). "The Delhi Sultanate as Empire". In Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (eds.).The Oxford World History of Empire. Vol. 2. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-753276-8.
Condos, Mark.The Insecurity State: Punjab and the Making of Colonial Power in British India (2020)excerptArchived 18 November 2022 at theWayback Machine
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[Quraishee 73]Punjabi Adab De Kahani, Abdul Hafeez Quaraihee, Azeez Book Depot, Lahore, 1973.
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Patwant Singh. 1999.The Sikhs. New York: Doubleday.ISBN0-385-50206-0.
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