Province of the Punjab
1849–1947
Flag Emblem
Motto: Crescat e Fluviis (Latin) "Let it grow from the rivers"
Anthem: "God Save the King"
The Province of the Punjab in 1909 The Province of the Punjab in 1880
Status	Board of Administration-led province underBengal Presidency ofEast India Company (1849–1853) Chief Commissioner's Province ofEast India Company (1853–1858) Lieutenant Governor-ledprovince of British India (1858–1921) Governor-led province of British India (1921–1947)
Capital	Lahore
Summer Capital	Murree (1873–1876) Simla (1876–1947)
Official languages	English Urdu Persian[a]
Native languages	Punjabi others
Religion (1941)	53.2%Islam 30.1%Hinduism 14.9%Sikhism 1.5%Christianity 0.5%other
Demonym	Punjabi
Head of Province
• 1849–1853	Henry Montgomery Lawrence (first)[b]
• 1946–1947	Evan Meredith Jenkins (last)[c]
Premier
• 1937–1942	Sikandar Hayat Khan (first)
• 1942–1947	Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana (last)
Legislature	Punjab Legislative Council (1921–1936) Punjab Provincial Assembly (1937–1947)
Historical era	New Imperialism
• Battle of Gujrat	21 February 1849
• Annexation of Punjab	29 March 1849
• Incorporation of Delhi Division	1858
• Separation of the North-West Frontier	9 November 1901
• Separation of Delhi District	1911
• Establishment of Pakistan and India	14–15 August 1947
• Partition of Punjab during the Partition of India	17 August 1947
Area
• Total	458,354 km2 (176,971 sq mi)
Population
• 1941 census	34,309,861
Currency	British Indian rupee
Time zone	UTC+05:30
Date format	dd-mm-yyyy
Preceded by Succeeded by 1849: Sikh Empire 1849: Cis-Sutlej states 1858: Delhi Division 1901: North-West Frontier Province 1911: Delhi Province 1947: West Punjab East Punjab Patiala and East Punjab States Union
Today part of	Pakistan India

ThePunjab Province, officially theProvince of the Punjab, was aprovince of British India, with its capital inLahore andsummer capitals inMurree andSimla. At its greatest extent, it stretched from theKhyber Pass toDelhi; and from theBabusar Pass and the borders ofTibet to the borders ofSind. Established in 1849 followingPunjab's annexation, the province waspartitioned in 1947 intoWest andEast Punjab; and incorporated intoPakistan andIndia, respectively.

Most of thePunjab region was annexed by theEast India Company on29 March 1849 following the company's victory against theSikh Empire's army at thebattle of Gujrat in northern Punjab, a month prior. The Punjab was the last major region of theIndian subcontinent to fall toBritish imperialism.

Immediately following its annexation, the Punjab was annexed into theBengal Presidency and administered separately by aboard of administration led by thehead of province.^[1]: 54 After 1853, the board was replaced by achief commissioner as the Punjab was separated from the Bengal Presidency and established as aChief Commissioner's Province.^[1]: 54 In 1858, the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the rule of theBritish crown. Following theIndian Rebellion of 1857, the Punjab became a lieutenant-governor's province under the Bengal Presidency.^[1]: 54 After theGovernment of India Act 1919, Punjab was turned into a governor's province.^[1]: 55 It had a land area of 358,355 square kilometers.

The province comprised four natural geographic regions –Indo-Gangetic Plain West,Himalayan,Sub-Himalayan, and theNorth-West Dry Area – along with five administrative divisions –Delhi,Jullundur,Lahore,Multan, andRawalpindi – and a number ofprincely states.^[2] In 1947, thePartition of India led to the province's division intoEast Punjab andWest Punjab, in the newly independentdominions of theIndian Union andPakistan respectively.

During the colonial-period, the appellation "province" was used somewhat indiscriminately but usually referred to lieutenant-governor provinces (which Punjab was after 1859) but also to chief-commissioner provinces (which Punjab was from 1853–1859).^{[1]: 54–55}

The region was originally called theSapta Sindhu Rivers,^[3] theVedic land of the seven rivers, originally: Saraswati, Indus, Sutlej, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, and Beas.^[4] TheSanskrit name for the region, as mentioned in theRamayana andMahabharata, for example, wasPañcanada, which means literally "Five Waters", and was translated fromSanskrit toFarsi asPanj-Âb after theIslamic conquests.^[5][6] The later namePunjab is thus a compound of twoFarsi words^[7][8] Panj (five) and āb (water) and was introduced to the region by theTurko-Persian conquerors^[9] ofIndia and more formally popularised during theMughal Empire.^[10][11] Punjab literally means"(The Land of) Five Waters" referring to the rivers:Jhelum,Chenab,Ravi,Sutlej, andBeas.^[12] All are tributaries of theIndus River, the Chenab being the largest.

Geographically, the province was a triangular tract of country of which theIndus River and its tributary theSutlej formed the two sides up to their confluence, the base of the triangle in the north being theLower Himalayan Range between those two rivers. Moreover, the province as constituted under British rule also included a large tract outside these boundaries. Along the northern border, Himalayan ranges divided it fromKashmir andTibet. On the west it was separated from theNorth-West Frontier Province by the Indus, until it reached the border ofDera Ghazi Khan District, which was divided fromBaluchistan by theSulaiman Range. To the south laySindh andRajputana, while on the east the riversJumna andTons separated it from theUnited Provinces.^[2] In total Punjab had an area of approximately 357 000 km square about the same size as modern day Germany, being one of the largest provinces of the British Raj.

It encompassed the present dayIndian states ofPunjab,Haryana,Chandigarh,Delhi, and some parts ofHimachal Pradesh which were merged with Punjab by the British for administrative purposes (but excluding the formerprincely states which were later combined into thePatiala and East Punjab States Union) and the Pakistani regions of thePunjab,Islamabad Capital Territory andKhyber Pakhtunkhwa.

In 1901 the frontier districts beyond the Indus were separated from Punjab and made into a new province: theNorth-West Frontier Province. Subsequently, Punjab was divided into four natural geographical divisions by colonial officials on the decadal census data:^{[13]: 2 [14]: 4}

1. Indo-Gangetic Plain West geographical division (includingHisar district,Loharu State,Rohtak district,Dujana State,Gurgaon district,Pataudi State,Delhi,Karnal district,Jalandhar district,Kapurthala State,Ludhiana district,Malerkotla State,Firozpur district,Faridkot State,Patiala State,Jind State,Nabha State,Lahore District,Amritsar district,Gujranwala District, andSheikhupura District);
2. Himalayan geographical division (includingSirmoor State,Simla District,Simla Hill States,Bilaspur State,Kangra district,Mandi State,Suket State, andChamba State);
3. Sub-Himalayan geographical division (includingAmbala district,Kalsia State,Hoshiarpur district,Gurdaspur District,Sialkot District,Gujrat District,Jhelum District,Rawalpindi District, andAttock District;
4. North-West Dry Area geographical division (includingMontgomery District,Shahpur District,Mianwali District,Lyallpur District,Jhang District,Multan District,Bahawalpur State,Muzaffargarh District,Dera Ghazi Khan District, and the Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract).

The Durbar, or assembly of native princes and nobles, convened by Sir John Lawrence at Lahore

Delhi and the areas of Gurgaon, Hisar, and Karnal districts wereconquered by the British in 1803.^[16] On 30 December 1803, theDaulat Scindia signed theTreaty of Surji-Anjangaon with the British after theBattle of Assaye and Battle ofLaswari and ceded to the British, Hisar, Panipat, Rohtak, Rewari, Gurgaon, Ganges-Jumna Doab, the Delhi-Agra region, parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, some districts of Gujarat and the fort of Ahmmadnagar.^[17]: 73 The area of Shimla district was obtained by the British in 1815.^[16]After the conclusion of the First Anglo-Sikh War of 1845–46, the areas of the following districts were annexed by the British: Ambala, Firozpur, Hoshiyarpur, Jalandhar, Kangra, Ludhiana districts.^{[16][better source needed]} After the Second Anglo-Sikh War of 1848–49, the areas of the following districts were annexed by the Britishers: Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Bannu, Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan, Gujranwala, Gujrat, Hazara, Jhang, Jhelum, Kohat, Lahore, Montgomerty, Multan, Muzaffargarh, Peshawar, Rawalpindi, Shahpur, and Sialkot districts.^[18][16]

On 21 February 1849, theEast India Company decisively defeated theSikh Empire at theBattle of Gujrat bringing to an end theSecond Anglo-Sikh War. Following the victory, the East India Company announced the annexation of the conquered territory through adurbar proclamation on 30 March 1849 and annexed the Punjab on 2 April 1849^{[citation needed]} and incorporated it withinBritish India.^[19]: 556 The deposed child-monarchDuleep Singh was given a pension and forced to live outside Punjab.^[19]: 556

For the task of organization of the conquered region, Henry Lawrence was the prime candidate to take up the task, yet Dalhousie did not agree with Lawrence's views fully.^[19]: 556 Thus, the compromise was the establishment of a three-member board of government/administration to administer the new territory.^{[19]: 556 [1]: 54} The province whilst nominally under the control of theBengal Presidency was administratively independent.^{[citation needed]}Lord Dalhousie constituted the Board of Administration by inducting into it the most experienced and seasoned British officers.^[19]: 556 The Board was led bySir Henry Lawrence, who had previously worked as British Resident at theLahoreDurbar and also consisted of his younger brotherJohn Lawrence andCharles Grenville Mansel.^{[20][19]: 556} Below the Board, a group of acclaimed officers collectively known asHenry Lawrence's "Young Men" assisted in the administration of the newly acquired province.^{[citation needed]} The Board was abolished by Lord Dalhousie in 1853;^{[citation needed]} Sir Henry was assigned to theRajputana Agency, and his brother John Lawrence succeeded as the first Chief Commissioner.^[19]: 557 Thus, Punjab became administered by a chief commissioner.^[1]: 54

Recognising the cultural diversity of the Punjab, the Board maintained a strict policy of non-interference in regard to religious and cultural matters.^[21] Sikh aristocrats were given patronage and pensions and groups in control of historical places of worship were allowed to remain in control.^[21]

During theIndian Rebellion of 1857, the Punjab remained relatively peaceful, apart from rebellion led byAhmad Khan Kharral.^[22] In May, John Lawrence took swift action to disarm potentially mutinous sepoys and redeploy most European troops to the Delhi ridge.^[23] Finally he recruited new regiments of Punjabis to replace the depleted force, and was provided with manpower and support from surrounding princely states such as Jind, Patiala, Nabha and Kapurthala and tribal chiefs on the borderlands with Afghanistan. By 1858, an estimated 70,000 extra men had been recruited for the army and militarised police from within the Punjab.^[22]

Following the Indian mutiny, Punjab became a lieutenant-governor's province, still under the Bengal Presidency.^[1]: 54 The governor-general of India, the highest seat of local authority, ruled the Bengal Presidency through its lieutenant-governors and chief-commissioners.^[1]: 54 Both the lieutenant-governors and chief-commissioners presided over commissioners of divisions, with those commissioners having authority over deputy-commissioners of districts.^[1]: 54

In 1858, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued byQueen Victoria, the Punjab, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British Crown.^[24] The East India Company was abolished, along with its court of directors, replacing that administrative set-up with thecouncil of India.^[1]: 55Delhi Territory was transferred from theNorth-Western Provinces to the Punjab in 1858, partly to punish the city for the important role the lastMughal emperor,Bahadur Shah II, and the city as a whole, played in the 1857 Rebellion.^[25]

In 1859, Punjab became a lieutenant-governor's province.^{[1]: 54–55} Sir John Lawrence, then Chief Commissioner, was appointed the firstLieutenant-Governor on 1 January 1859. In 1866, the Judicial Commissioner was replaced by a Chief Court. The direct administrative functions of the Government were carried by the Lieutenant-Governor through the Secretariat, comprising a Chief Secretary, a Secretary and two Under-Secretaries. They were usually members of theIndian Civil Service.^[26] The territory under the Lieutenant consisted of 29 Districts, grouped under 5 Divisions, and 43Princely States. Each District was under a Deputy-Commissioner, who reported to the Commissioner of the Division. Each District was subdivided into between three and seventehsils, each under atahsildar, assisted by anaib (deputy)tahsildar.^[27]

In 1885 the Punjab administration began an ambitious plan to transform over six million acres of barren waste land in central and western Punjab into irrigable agricultural land. Thecreation of canal colonies was designed to relieve demographic pressures in the central parts of the province, increase productivity and revenues, and create a loyal support amongst peasant landholders.^[28] The colonisation resulted in an agricultural revolution in the province, rapid industrial growth, and the resettlement of over one million Punjabis in the new areas.^[29] A number of towns were created or saw significant development in the colonies, such asLyallpur,Sargodha andMontgomery. Colonisation led to the canal irrigated area of the Punjab increasing from three to fourteen million acres in the period from 1885 to 1947.^[30]

The beginning of the twentieth century saw increasing unrest in the Punjab. Conditions in the Chenab colony, together with land reforms such as thePunjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 and the Colonisation Bill, 1906 contributed to the1907 Punjab unrest. The unrest was unlike any previous agitation in the province as the government had for the first time aggrieved a large portion of the rural population.^[31] Mass demonstrations were organised, headed byLala Lajpat Rai, a leader of the Hindu revivalist sectArya Samaj.^[31] The unrest resulted in the repeal of the Colonisation Bill and the end of paternalist policies in the colonies.^[31]

During theFirst World War, Punjabi manpower contributed heavily to theIndian Army. Out of a total of 683,149 combat troops, 349,688 hailed from the province.^[32] In 1918, an influenza epidemic broke out in the province, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 962,937 people or 4.77 percent of the total estimated population.^[33] In March 1919 theRowlatt Act was passed extending emergency measures of detention and incarceration in response to the perceived threat of terrorism from revolutionary nationalist organisations.^[34] This led to the infamousJallianwala Bagh massacre in April 1919, where ColonelReginald Edward Harry Dyer ordered detachments of the9th Gorkha Rifles and the59th Scinde Rifles under his command to fire into a group of some 10,000 unarmed protesters andBaisakhi pilgrims, killing 379.^[35]

TheMontagu–Chelmsford Reforms enacted through theGovernment of India Act 1919 expanded the Punjab Legislative Council and introduced the principle ofdyarchy, whereby certain responsibilities such as agriculture, health, education, and local government, were transferred to elected ministers. The first Punjab Legislative Council under the 1919 Act was constituted in 1921, comprising 93 members, seventy per cent to be elected and rest to be nominated.^[36] Some of the British Indian ministers under the dyarchy scheme wereSir Sheikh Abdul Qadir, SirShahab-ud-Din Virk and Lala Hari Kishen Lal.^[37][38]

TheGovernment of India Act 1935 introduced provincial autonomy to Punjab replacing the system of dyarchy. It provided for the constitution of Punjab Legislative Assembly of 175 members presided by a Speaker and an executive government responsible to the Assembly. TheUnionist Party under SirSikandar Hayat Khan formed the government in 1937. Sir Sikandar was succeeded byMalik Khizar Hayat Tiwana in 1942 who remained the Premier till partition in 1947. Although the term of the Assembly was five years, the Assembly continued for about eight years and its last sitting was held on 19 March 1945.^[39]

The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported the Unionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party led independence movement.^[40] Amongst the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most activeNational Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to theAkali movement whilst the Muslims eventually supported theAll-India Muslim League.^[40]

Since the partition of the sub-continent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided intoWest PunjabLegislative Assembly and the East Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.^[41]

The first British census of the Punjab was carried out in 1855. This covered only British territory to the exclusion of local princely states, and placed the population at 17.6 million. The first regular census of British India carried out in 1881 recorded a population of 20.8 million people. The final British census in 1941 recorded 34.3 million people in the Punjab, which comprised 29 districts within British territory, 43 princely states, 52,047 villages and 283 towns.^[43]

In 1881, only Amritsar and Lahore had populations over 100,000. The commercial and industrial city of Amritsar (152,000) was slightly larger than the cultural capital of Lahore (149,000). Over the following sixty years, Lahore increased in population fourfold, whilst Amritsar grew two-fold. By 1941, the province had seven cities with populations over 100,000 with emergence and growth of Rawalpindi, Multan, Sialkot, Jullundur and Ludhiana.^[43]

The colonial period saw large scale migration within the Punjab due to the creation ofcanal colonies in western Punjab. The majority of colonists hailed from the seven most densely populated districts of Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Jullundur, Hoshiarpur, Ludhiana, Ambala and Sialkot, and consisted primarily ofKhatris,Brahmins,Jats,Arains,Sainis,Kambohs andRajputs. The movement of many highly skilled farmers from eastern and central Punjab to the new colonies, led to western Punjab becoming the most progressive and advanced agricultural region of the province.^[43]

The period also saw significant numbers of Punjabis emigrate to other regions of theBritish Empire. The main destinations were East Africa -Kenya,Uganda andTanzania, Southeast Asia -Malaya andBurma,Hong Kong andCanada.^[43]

The Punjab was a religiously eclectic province, comprising three major groups:Muslims,Hindus andSikhs. By 1941, the religious Muslims constituting an absolute majority at 53.2%, whilst the Hindu population was at 30.1%.^[d] The period between 1881 and 1941 saw a significant increase in the Sikh andChristian populations, growing from 8.2% and 0.1% to 14.9% and 1.9% respectively.^[43] The decrease in the Hindu population has been attributed to the conversion of Hindus mainly to Sikhism and Islam, and also to Christianity.^[43]

In 1941, the Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs made 30.1,^[d] 53.2 and 14.9 per cent of the total population of Punjab but made 37.9, 51.4 and 8.4 per cent of itsurban population respectively.^[43]

Religious groups in Punjab Province (1881–1941)

Religious group	1881[44][45][46][e][f]		1891[47][48][49][e][f]		1901[50]: 34 [e]		1911[51]: 27 [52]: 27 [e]		1921[53]: 29		1931[54]: 277		1941[14]: 42
	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%
Islam	9,872,745	47.58%	10,827,628	47.39%	12,183,345	49.22%	12,275,477	50.75%	12,813,383	51.05%	14,929,896	52.4%	18,259,744	53.22%
Hinduism[d]	9,095,175	43.84%	10,070,716	44.08%	10,344,469	41.79%	8,773,621	36.27%	8,799,651	35.06%	9,018,509	31.65%	10,336,549	30.13%
Sikhism	1,706,165	8.22%	1,849,371	8.09%	2,102,896	8.49%	2,883,729	11.92%	3,107,296	12.38%	4,071,624	14.29%	5,116,185	14.91%
Jainism	42,572	0.21%	45,575	0.2%	49,983	0.2%	46,775	0.19%	41,321	0.16%	43,140	0.15%	45,475	0.13%
Christianity	28,054	0.14%	48,472	0.21%	66,591	0.27%	199,751	0.83%	332,939	1.33%	419,353	1.47%	512,466	1.49%
Buddhism	3,251	0.02%	6,236	0.03%	6,940	0.03%	7,690	0.03%	5,912	0.02%	7,753	0.03%	854	0.002%
Zoroastrianism	413	0.002%	364	0.002%	477	0.002%	653	0.003%	526	0.002%	569	0.002%	4,359	0.01%
Judaism	—	—	29	0.0001%	24	0.0001%	54	0.0002%	19	0.0001%	13	0%	39	0.0001%
Others	57	0.0003%	28	0.0001%	12	0%	0	0%	13	0.0001%	0	0%	34,190	0.1%
Total population	20,748,432	100%	22,848,419	100%	24,754,737	100%	24,187,750	100%	25,101,060	100%	28,490,857	100%	34,309,861	100%
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions ofPunjab, India,Chandigarh Union Territory,Haryana,Himachal Pradesh,National Capital Territory of Delhi (until 1911),Punjab, Pakistan, andIslamabad Capital Territory.

Religion in West Punjab (1881–1941)

Religious group	1881[44][45][46][55][g]		1891[47][48][49][56][h]		1901[50]: 34 [57]: 62 [i]		1911[51]: 27 [52]: 27 [j]		1921[53]: 29 [k]		1931[54]: 277 [l]		1941[14]: 42 [m]
	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%
Islam	6,201,859	78.09%	6,766,545	76.07%	7,951,155	76.25%	8,494,314	76.49%	8,975,288	75.49%	10,570,029	75.28%	13,022,160	75.06%
Hinduism[d]	1,449,913	18.26%	1,727,810	19.42%	1,944,363	18.65%	1,645,758	14.82%	1,797,141	15.12%	1,957,878	13.94%	2,373,466	13.68%
Sikhism	272,908	3.44%	366,162	4.12%	483,999	4.64%	813,441	7.33%	863,091	7.26%	1,180,789	8.41%	1,530,112	8.82%
Christianity	12,992	0.16%	30,168	0.34%	42,371	0.41%	144,514	1.3%	247,030	2.08%	324,730	2.31%	395,311	2.28%
Jainism	4,352	0.05%	4,408	0.05%	5,562	0.05%	5,977	0.05%	5,930	0.05%	6,921	0.05%	9,520	0.05%
Zoroastrianism	354	0.004%	215	0.002%	300	0.003%	377	0.003%	309	0.003%	413	0.003%	312	0.002%
Buddhism	0	0%	0	0%	6	0.0001%	168	0.002%	172	0.001%	32	0.0002%	87	0.001%
Judaism	—	—	17	0.0002%	9	0.0001%	36	0.0003%	16	0.0001%	6	0%	7	0%
Others	21	0.0003%	17	0.0002%	0	0%	0	0%	8	0.0001%	0	0%	19,128	0.11%
Total Population	7,942,399	100%	8,895,342	100%	10,427,765	100%	11,104,585	100%	11,888,985	100%	14,040,798	100%	17,350,103	100%
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions ofPunjab, Pakistan andIslamabad Capital Territory. Note: 186 villages and 2 towns —Khemkaran andPatti — inKasur Tehsil (Lahore District) fell on the eastern side of theRadcliffe Line, but their population numbers are still included here as detailed sub-tehsil religious data did not exist at the time. According to the 1941 census,Kasur Tehsil had a total of 322 villages and 3 towns, roughly half fell on the western side of theRadcliffe Line.[58]

Religion in East Punjab (1881–1941)

Religious group	1881[44][45][46][55][n][e]		1891[47][48][49][56][o][e]		1901[50]: 34 [57]: 62 [p][e]		1911[51]: 27 [52]: 27 [q][e]		1921[53]: 29 [r]		1931[54]: 277 [s]		1941[14]: 42 [t]
	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%
Hinduism[d]	7,645,262	59.7%	8,342,906	59.79%	8,400,106	58.63%	7,127,863	54.48%	7,002,510	53%	7,060,631	48.86%	7,963,083	46.95%
Islam	3,670,886	28.67%	4,061,083	29.11%	4,232,190	29.54%	3,781,163	28.9%	3,838,095	29.05%	4,359,867	30.17%	5,237,584	30.88%
Sikhism	1,433,257	11.19%	1,483,209	10.63%	1,618,897	11.3%	2,070,288	15.82%	2,244,205	16.99%	2,890,835	20.01%	3,586,073	21.14%
Jainism	38,220	0.3%	41,167	0.3%	44,421	0.31%	40,798	0.31%	35,391	0.27%	36,219	0.25%	35,955	0.21%
Christianity	15,062	0.12%	18,304	0.13%	24,220	0.17%	55,237	0.42%	85,909	0.65%	94,623	0.65%	117,155	0.69%
Buddhism	3,251	0.03%	6,236	0.04%	6,934	0.05%	7,522	0.06%	5,740	0.04%	7,721	0.05%	767	0.005%
Zoroastrianism	59	0.0005%	149	0.001%	177	0.001%	276	0.002%	217	0.002%	156	0.001%	4,047	0.02%
Judaism	—	—	12	0.0001%	15	0.0001%	18	0.0001%	3	0%	7	0%	32	0.0002%
Others	36	0.0003%	11	0.0001%	12	0.0001%	0	0%	5	0%	0	0%	15,062	0.09%
Total Population	12,806,033	100%	13,953,077	100%	14,326,972	100%	13,083,165	100%	13,212,075	100%	14,450,059	100%	16,959,758	100%
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions ofPunjab, India,Chandigarh,Haryana,Himachal Pradesh, andNational Capital Territory of Delhi (until 1911). Note: 186 villages and 2 towns —Khemkaran andPatti — inKasur Tehsil (Lahore District) fell on the eastern side of theRadcliffe Line, but their population numbers are not included here as detailed sub-tehsil religious data did not exist at the time. According to the 1941 census,Kasur Tehsil had a total of 322 villages and 3 towns, roughly half fell on the western side of theRadcliffe Line.[58]

Religion in the Districts & Princely States of Punjab Province (1941)^[14]

District/ Princely state	Islam		Hinduism[d]		Sikhism		Christianity		Jainism		Others[u]		Total
	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%	Pop.	%
Patiala State	436,539	22.55%	597,488	30.86%	896,021	46.28%	1,592	0.08%	3,101	0.16%	1,518	0.08%	1,936,259	100%
Lahore District	1,027,772	60.62%	284,689	16.79%	310,646	18.32%	70,147	4.14%	1,951	0.12%	170	0.01%	1,695,375	100%
Multan District	1,157,911	78.01%	249,872	16.83%	61,628	4.15%	14,290	0.96%	552	0.04%	80	0.01%	1,484,333	100%
Firozpur district	641,448	45.07%	287,733	20.22%	479,486	33.69%	12,607	0.89%	1,674	0.12%	128	0.01%	1,423,076	100%
Amritsar district	657,695	46.52%	217,431	15.38%	510,845	36.13%	25,973	1.84%	1,911	0.14%	21	0%	1,413,876	100%
Lyallpur District	877,518	62.85%	204,059	14.61%	262,737	18.82%	51,948	3.72%	35	0%	8	0%	1,396,305	100%
Bahawalpur State	1,098,814	81.93%	174,408	13%	46,945	3.5%	3,048	0.23%	351	0.03%	17,643	1.32%	1,341,209	100%
Montgomery District	918,564	69.11%	210,966	15.87%	175,064	13.17%	24,432	1.84%	49	0%	28	0%	1,329,103	100%
Sialkot District	739,218	62.09%	231,319	19.43%	139,409	11.71%	75,831	6.37%	3,250	0.27%	1,470	0.12%	1,190,497	100%
Hoshiarpur district	380,759	32.53%	584,080	49.91%	198,194	16.93%	6,165	0.53%	1,125	0.1%	0	0%	1,170,323	100%
Jalandhar district	509,804	45.23%	311,010	27.59%	298,741	26.5%	6,233	0.55%	1,395	0.12%	7	0%	1,127,190	100%
Gujrat District	945,609	85.58%	84,643	7.66%	70,233	6.36%	4,449	0.4%	10	0%	8	0%	1,104,952	100%
Hill States[v]	37,214	3.39%	1,053,637	95.92%	6,404	0.58%	407	0.04%	210	0.02%	603	0.05%	1,098,475	100%
Hisar district	285,208	28.33%	652,842	64.85%	60,731	6.03%	1,292	0.13%	6,126	0.61%	510	0.05%	1,006,709	100%
Shahpur District	835,918	83.68%	102,172	10.23%	48,046	4.81%	12,770	1.28%	13	0%	2	0%	998,921	100%
Karnal district	304,346	30.6%	666,301	66.99%	19,887	2%	1,249	0.13%	2,789	0.28%	3	0%	994,575	100%
Rohtak district	166,569	17.42%	780,474	81.61%	1,466	0.15%	1,043	0.11%	6,847	0.72%	0	0%	956,399	100%
Gujranwala District	642,706	70.45%	108,115	11.85%	99,139	10.87%	60,829	6.67%	1,445	0.16%	0	0%	912,234	100%
Kangra district	43,249	4.81%	846,531	94.12%	4,809	0.53%	788	0.09%	101	0.01%	3,899	0.43%	899,377	100%
Gurdaspur district[w]	440,323	51.08%	174,221	20.21%	200,688	23.28%	46,743	5.42%	25	0%	6	0%	862,006	100%
Sheikhupura District	542,344	63.62%	89,182	10.46%	160,706	18.85%	60,054	7.04%	221	0.03%	1	0%	852,508	100%
Gurgaon district	285,992	33.59%	560,537	65.83%	637	0.07%	1,673	0.2%	2,613	0.31%	6	0%	851,458	100%
Ambala district	268,999	31.73%	412,658	48.68%	156,543	18.47%	6,065	0.72%	3,065	0.36%	415	0.05%	847,745	100%
Jhang District	678,736	82.61%	129,889	15.81%	12,238	1.49%	763	0.09%	5	0%	0	0%	821,631	100%
Ludhiana district	302,482	36.95%	171,715	20.98%	341,175	41.68%	1,913	0.23%	1,279	0.16%	51	0.01%	818,615	100%
Rawalpindi District	628,193	80%	82,478	10.5%	64,127	8.17%	9,014	1.15%	1,337	0.17%	82	0.01%	785,231	100%
Muzaffargarh District	616,074	86.42%	90,643	12.72%	5,882	0.83%	227	0.03%	0	0%	23	0%	712,849	100%
Attock District	611,128	90.42%	43,209	6.39%	20,120	2.98%	1,392	0.21%	13	0%	13	0%	675,875	100%
Jhelum District	563,033	89.42%	40,888	6.49%	24,680	3.92%	893	0.14%	159	0.03%	5	0%	629,658	100%
Dera Ghazi Khan District	512,678	88.19%	67,407	11.59%	1,072	0.18%	87	0.01%	106	0.02%	0	0%	581,350	100%
Mianwali District	436,260	86.16%	62,814	12.41%	6,865	1.36%	358	0.07%	23	0%	1	0%	506,321	100%
Kapurthala State	213,754	56.49%	61,546	16.27%	88,350	23.35%	1,667	0.44%	380	0.1%	12,683	3.35%	378,380	100%
Jind State	50,972	14.09%	268,355	74.17%	40,981	11.33%	161	0.04%	1,294	0.36%	49	0.01%	361,812	100%
Nabha State	70,373	20.45%	146,518	42.59%	122,451	35.59%	221	0.06%	480	0.14%	1	0%	344,044	100%
Shakargarh Tehsil[x]	149,600	51.32%	116,553	39.98%	20,573	7.06%	4,779	1.64%	0	0%	0	0%	291,505	100%
Faridkot State	61,352	30.79%	21,814	10.95%	115,070	57.74%	247	0.12%	800	0.4%	0	0%	199,283	100%
Malerkotla State	33,881	38.45%	23,482	26.65%	30,320	34.41%	116	0.13%	310	0.35%	0	0%	88,109	100%
Kalsia State	25,049	37.17%	29,866	44.32%	12,235	18.15%	55	0.08%	188	0.28%	0	0%	67,393	100%
Biloch Trans–Frontier Tract	40,084	99.6%	160	0.4%	2	0%	0	0%	0	0%	0	0%	40,246	100%
Simla District	7,022	18.2%	29,466	76.38%	1,032	2.68%	934	2.42%	114	0.3%	8	0.02%	38,576	100%
Dujana State	6,939	22.63%	23,727	77.37%	0	0%	0	0%	0	0%	0	0%	30,666	100%
Loharu State	3,960	14.2%	23,923	85.77%	7	0.03%	2	0.01%	0	0%	0	0%	27,892	100%
Pataudi State	3,655	16.98%	17,728	82.38%	0	0%	9	0.04%	128	0.59%	0	0%	21,520	100%
Total	18,259,744	53.22%	10,336,549	30.13%	5,116,185	14.91%	512,466	1.49%	45,475	0.13%	39,442	0.11%	34,309,861	100%
Territory comprises the contemporary subdivisions ofPunjab, India,Chandigarh Union Territory,Haryana,Himachal Pradesh,Punjab, Pakistan, andIslamabad Capital Territory.

As with religion, Punjab was a linguistically eclectically diverse province andregion. In 1837,Persian had been abolished as the official language of Company administration and replaced by local Indian vernacular languages. In the Sikh Empire, Persian continued to be the official state language.^[59] Shortly after annexing the Punjab in 1849, the Board of Administration canvassed local officials in each of the provinces's six divisions to decide which language was "best suited for the Courts and Public Business".^[60] Officials in the western divisions recommended Persian whilst eastern officials suggested a shift to Urdu.^[60] In September 1849 a two-language policy was instituted throughout the province. The language policy in the Punjab differed from other Indian provinces in that Urdu was not a widespread local vernacular. In 1849 John Lawrence noted "that Urdu is not the language of these districts and neither is Persian".^[60]

In 1854, the Board of Administration abruptly ended the two-language policy and Urdu was designated as the official language of government across the province. The decision was motivated by new civil service rules requiring all officials pass a test in the official language of their local court. In fear of potentially losing their jobs, officials in Persian districts petitioned the board to replace Persian with Urdu, believing Urdu the easier language to master.^[61] Urdu remained the official administrative language until 1947.

Officials, although aware that Punjabi was the colloquial language of the majority, instead favoured the use of Urdu for a number of reasons. Criticism of Punjabi included the belief that it was simply a form ofpatois, lacking any form of standardisation, and that "would be inflexible and barren, and incapable of expressing nice shades of meaning and exact logical ideas with the precision so essential in local proceedings."^[61] Similar arguments had earlier been made aboutBengali,Oriya andHindustani; however, those languages were later adopted for local administration. Instead it is believed the advantages of Urdu served the administration greater. Urdu, and initially Persian, allowed the Company to recruit experienced administrators from elsewhere in India who did not speak Punjabi, to facilitate greater integration with other Indian territories which were administered with Urdu, and to help foster ties with local elites who spoke Persian and Urdu and could act as intermediaries with the wider populace.^[61]

According to the 1931 Census of British Punjab Province,Punjabi was the most widely spoken language, with50.94% of the population reporting it, and50.49% declaring it as their mother tongue (MT).Lahnda followed with25.90% total speakers (25.66% MT), andHindustani accounted for14.00% (13.75% MT). Other languages includedWestern Pahari (5.93%),Rajasthani (2.15%),Pashto (0.32%), Balochi (0.21%), andKashmiri (0.08%). Additionally,0.47% of the population spoke languages categorized as 'Others'. The table below presents the full linguistic distribution, including both total speakers and those who reported eachlanguage as theirmother tongue.

Summary of the table above 1931 language census of Punjab:In pre-partition Punjab, the linguistic landscape was divided into major zones based on dominant languages and influence:Punjabi-Dominant Regions: These districts were overwhelmingly Punjabi-speaking —Hoshiarpur,Kapurthala State,Malerkotla,Jullundur,Sialkot,Gurdaspur,Amritsar,Ludhiana,Faridkot State,Ferozepore,Lahore,Patiala, andNabha State.Punjabi with Lahnda Influence: Districts where Punjabi was dominant but there was also significant Lahnda influence includedShekhupura,Lyallpur,Gujranwala, andGujrat.Lahnda with Punjabi Influence: Regions likeJhelum,Multan,Shahpur, andMontgomery were Lahnda-dominant but retained a strong influence of Punjabi.Lahnda-Dominant Regions: These districts were primarily Lahnda-speaking —Muzaffargarh,Jhang,Attock,Rawalpindi,Mianwali,Jhelum,Dera Ghazi Khan,Bahawalpur State, andMultan. AndMianwali, andAttock showed a small influence ofPashto whileDera Ghazi Khan had influence ofBalochi, especially in their western parts.Hill Regions: The hill districts namelyKangra,Simla, andSimla Hill states & other hill States with few part ofPatiala State(2.33%) specially itskandaghat tahsil were dominated byWestern Pahari speakers. while some part ofSimla Hill states(10.72%) also have influence ofPunjabi.Hindustani and Rajasthani Zones: InAmbala Division, districts such asDelhi,Karnal,Rohtak, andGurgaon were primarilyHindustani- andRajasthani-speaking. However,Ambala (35.6%) andHissar (24.4%) had significant Punjabi-speaking populations withHindustani andRajasthani Majority. Additionally, the majority ofJind State and parts ofPatiala andNabha State that geographically surrounded the Ambala Division were linguistic enclaves of Hindustani and Rajasthani. A very small part ofFerozepore had influence fromHindustani andRajasthani languages.

As per the 1911 census, speakers of thePunjabi dialects and languages, includingstandard Punjabi along withLahnda^[aj] formed just over three-quarters (75.93 per cent) of the total provincial population.

Literacy Rate by Religious Community in Punjab Province 1941^[63]

In 1854, the Punjab education department was instituted with a policy to provide secular education in all government managed institutions.^[64] Privately run institutions would only receive grants-in-aid in return for providing secular instruction.^[64] By 1864 this had resulted in a situation whereby all grants-in-aid to higher education schools and colleges were received by institutions under European management, and no indigenous owned schools received government help.^[64]

In the early 1860s, a number of educational colleges were established, includingLawrence College, Murree,King Edward Medical University,Government College, Lahore,Glancy Medical College andForman Christian College. In 1882,Gottlieb Wilhelm Leitner published a damning report on the state of education in the Punjab. He lamented the failure to reconcile government run schools with traditional indigenous schools, and noted a steady decline in the number of schools across the province since annexation.^[65] He noted in particular how Punjabi Muslim's avoided government run schools due to the lack of religious subjects taught in them, observing how at least 120,000 Punjabis attended schools unsupported by the state and describing it as 'a protest by the people against our system of education.'^[66] Leitner had long advocated the benefits of oriental scholarship, and the fusion of government education with religious instruction. In January 1865 he had established the Anjuman-i-Punjab, a subscription based association aimed at using a European style of learning to promote useful knowledge, whilst also reviving traditional scholarship inArabic,Persian andSanskrit.^[67] In 1884, a reorganisation of the Punjab education system occurred, introducing measures tending towards decentralisation of control over education and the promotion of an indigenous education agency. As a consequence several new institutions were encouraged in the province. TheArya Samaj opened a college in Lahore in 1886, the Sikhs opened theKhalsa College whilst theAnjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam stepped in to organise Muslim education.^[68] In 1886, the Punjab Chiefs' College, later renamedAitchison College, was opened to further the education of the elite classes.

Punjab Province was diverse, with the maincastes represented alongside numerous subcastes andtribes (also known asJāti orBarādarī), forming parts of the various ethnic groups in the province, contemporarily known asPunjabis,Saraikis,Haryanvis,Hindkowans,Dogras,Paharis,Potoharis,Himachalis,Bagri people and other non related ethnicities wereKashmiris,Balti people,Ladakhi people,Pashtuns,Baloch people,Marwaris.

• 
  Jats in Delhi (1868)
• 
  Rajputs in Delhi (1868)
• 
  Brahmin in Lahore (c. 1799–1849)
• 
  Left to right: Gurkha, Brahmin and Shudra (Chuhra-Chamar) in Simla (1868)
• 
  Arains in Lahore (1868)
• 
  Tarkhans in Lahore (1868)
• 
  Gujjars in Delhi (c. 1860s)
• 
  Arora in Lahore (1868)
• 
  Kumhars in Lahore (1868)

Within a few years of its annexation, the Punjab was regarded as British India's model agricultural province. From the 1860s onwards, agricultural prices and land values soared in the Punjab. This stemmed from increasing political security and improvements in infrastructure and communications. New cash crops such aswheat,tobacco,sugar cane andcotton were introduced. By the 1920s the Punjab produced a tenth of India's total cotton crop and a third of its wheat crop. Per capita output of all the crops in the province increased by approximately 45 percent between 1891 and 1921, a growth contrasting to agricultural crises in Bengal,Bihar andOrissa during the period.^[73]

ThePunjab Agricultural College and Research Institute became the first higher educational agricultural institution in the Punjab when established in 1906. Rapid agricultural growth, combined with access to easy credit for landowners, led to a growing crisis of indebtedness.^[74] When landowners were unable to pay down their loans, urban based moneylenders took advantage of the law to foreclose debts of mortgaged land.^[74] This led to a situation where land increasingly passed to absentee moneylenders who had little connection to the villages were the land was located. The colonial government recognised this as a potential threat to the stability of the province, and a split emerged in the government between paternalists who favoured intervention to ensure order, and those who opposed state intervention in private property relations.^[73] The paternalists emerged victorious and thePunjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 prevented urban commercial castes, who were overwhelmingly Hindu, from permanently acquiring land from statutory agriculturalist tribes, who were mainly Muslim and Sikh.^[75]

Accompanied by the increasing franchise of the rural population, this interventionist approach led to a long lasting impact on the political landscape of the province. The agricultural lobby remained loyal to the government, and rejected communalism in common defence of its privileges against urban moneylenders.^[73] This position was entrenched by the Unionist Party. The Congress Party's opposition to the Act led to it being marginalised in the Punjab, reducing its influence more so than in any other province, and inhibiting its ability to challenge colonial rule locally. The political dominance of the Unionist Party would remain until partition, and significantly it was only on the collapse of its power on the eve of independence from Britain, that communal violence began to spread in rural Punjab.^[73]

In the immediate aftermath of annexation, theSikh Khalsa Army was disbanded, and soldiers were required to surrender their weapons and return to agricultural or other pursuits.^[21] TheBengal Army, keen to utilise the highly trained ex-Khalsa army troops began to recruit from the Punjab for Bengal infantry units stationed in the province. However opposition to the recruitment of these soldiers spread and resentment emerged from sepoys of the Bengal Army towards the incursion of Punjabis into their ranks. In 1851, thePunjab Irregular Force also known as the 'Piffars' was raised. Initially they consisted of one garrison and four mule batteries, four regiments of cavalry, eleven of infantry and theCorps of Guides, totalling approximately 13,000 men.^[76] The gunners and infantry were mostly Punjabi, many from the Khalsa Army, whilst the cavalry had a considerable Hindustani presence.^[76]

During theIndian Rebellion of 1857, eighteen new regiments were raised from the Punjab which remained loyal to the East India Company throughout the crisis in the Punjab and United Provinces.^[77] By June 1858, of the 80,000 native troops in the Bengal Army, 75,000 were Punjabi of which 23,000 were Sikh.^[78] In the aftermath of the rebellion, a thorough re-organisation of the army took place. Henceforth recruitment into theBritish Indian Army was restricted to loyal peoples and provinces. Punjabi Sikhs emerged as a particularly favoured martial race to serve the army.^[79] In the midst ofThe Great Game, and fearful of a Russian invasion of British India, the Punjab was regarded of significant strategic importance as a frontier province. In addition to their loyalty and a belief in their suitability to serve in harsh conditions, Punjabi recruits were favoured as they could be paid at the local service rate, whereas soldiers serving on the frontier from more distant lands had to be paid extra foreign service allowances.^[80] By 1875, of the entire Indian army, a third of recruits hailed from the Punjab.^[81]

In 1914, three fifths of the Indian army came from the Punjab, despite the region constituting approximately one tenth of the total population of British India.^[81] During the First World War, Punjabi Sikhs alone accounted for one quarter of all armed personnel in India.^[79] Military service provided access to the wider world, and personnel were deployed across theBritish Empire fromMalaya, the Mediterranean andAfrica.^[79] Upon completion of their terms of service, these personnel were often amongst the first to seek their fortunes abroad.^[79] At the outbreak of the Second World War, 48 percent of the Indian army came from the province.^[82] In Jhelum, Rawalpindi and Attock, the percentage of the total male population who enlisted reached fifteen percent.^[83] The Punjab continued to be the main supplier of troops throughout the war, contributing 36 percent of the total Indian troops who served in the conflict.^[83]

The huge proportion of Punjabis in the army meant that a significant amount of military expenditure went to Punjabis and in turn resulted in an abnormally high level of resource input in the Punjab.^[84] It has been suggested that by 1935 if remittances of serving officers were combined with income from military pensions, more than two thirds of Punjab's land revenue could have been paid out of military incomes.^[84] Military service further helped reduce the extent of indebtedness across the Province. InHoshiarpur, a notable source of military personnel, in 1920 thirty percent of proprietors were debt free compared to the region's average of eleven percent.^[84] In addition, the benefits of military service and the perception that the government was benevolent towards soldiers, affected the latter's attitudes towards the British.^[78] The loyalty of recruited peasantry and the influence of military groups in rural areas across the province limited the reach of the nationalist movement in the province.^[78]

In 1853, the Viceroy Lord Dalhousie issued a minute stressing the military importance of railways across India.^[85] In the Punjab, however, it was initially strategic commercial interests which drove investment in railways and communications from 1860.^[85]

Independent railway companies emerged, such as theScinde,Punjab andDelhi railways to build and operate new lines. In 1862, the first section of railway in the Punjab was constructed between Lahore and Amritsar, andLahore Junction railway station opened. Lines were opened between Lahore and Multan in 1864, and Amritsar and Delhi in 1870.^[85] The Scinde, Punjab and Delhi railways merged to form theScinde, Punjab & Delhi Railway in 1870, creating a link between Karachi and Lahore via Multan. ThePunjab Northern State Railway linked Lahore and Peshawar in 1883. By 1886, the independent railways had amalgamated intoNorth Western State Railway.^[85]

The construction of railway lines and the network of railway workshops generated employment opportunities, which in turn led to increased immigration into cantonment towns.^[85] As connectivity increased across the province, it facilitated the movement of goods, and increased human interaction. It has been observed that the Ferozpur, Lahore and Amritsar began to develop into one composite cultural triangle due to the ease of connectivity between them.^[85] Similarly barriers of spoken dialects eroded over time, and cultural affinities were increasingly fostered.^[85]

In 1849, a Board of Administration was put in place to govern the newly annexed province. The Board was led by a President and two assistants. Beneath them Commissioners acted as Superintendents of revenue and police and exercised the civil appellate and the original criminal powers of Sessions Judges, whilst Deputy Commissioners were given subordinate civil, criminal and fiscal powers.^[86] In 1853, the Board of Administration was abolished, and authority was invested in a single Chief Commissioner. TheGovernment of India Act 1858 led to further restructuring and the office of Lieutenant-Governor replaced that of Chief Commissioner.AlthoughThe Indian Councils Act, 1861 laid the foundation for the establishment of a local legislature in the Punjab, the first legislature was constituted in 1897. It consisted of a body of nominated officials and non-officials and was presided over by the Lieutenant-Governor. The first council lasted for eleven years until 1909. TheMorley-Minto Reforms led to an elected members complementing the nominated officials in subsequent councils.^[87]

The Government of India Act 1919 introduced the system of dyarchy across British India and led to the implementation of the first Punjab Legislative Council in 1921. At the same time the office of lieutenant governor was replaced with that of governor. The initial Council had ninety three members, seventy per cent of which were elected and the rest nominated.^[87] A president was elected by the Council to preside over the meetings. Between 1921 and 1936, there were four terms of the Council.^[87]

In 1935, theGovernment of India Act 1935 replaced dyarchy with increased provincial autonomy. It introduced direct elections, and enabled elected Indian representatives to form governments in the provincial assemblies. The Punjab Legislative Council was replaced by a Punjab Legislative Assembly, and the role of President with that of a Speaker. Membership of the Assembly was fixed at 175 members, and it was intended to sit for five years.^[87]

The first election was held in 1937 and was won outright by the Unionist Party. Its leader, Sir Sikandar Hayat Khan was asked by the Governor,Sir Herbert Emerson to form a Ministry and he chose a cabinet consisting of three Muslims, two Hindus and a Sikh.^[88] Sir Sikandar died in 1942 and was succeeded as Premier by Khizar Hayat Khan Tiwana.

The next election was held in 1946. TheMuslim League won the most seats, winning 73 out of a total of 175. However a coalition led by the Unionist Party and consisting of theCongress Party andAkali Party were able to secure an overall majority. A campaign of civil disobedience by the Muslim League followed, lasting six weeks, and led to the resignation of Sir Khizar Tiwana and the collapse of the coalition government on 2 March 1947.^[89] The Muslim League however were unable to attract the support of other minorities to form a coalition government themselves.^[90] Amid this stalemate the GovernorSir Evan Jenkins assumed control of the government and remained in charge until the independence of India and Pakistan.^[90]

Crescat e Fluviis meaning,Let it grow from the rivers was theLatin motto used in the coat of arms for Punjab Province. As per the bookHistory of the Sikhs written byKhushwant Singh, it means Strength from the Rivers.

• 1849–1853: Punjab administered by a board of administration^{[1]: 54–55}
• 1853–1859: Punjab administered by a chief-commissioner^{[1]: 54–55}
• 1859–1919: Punjab administered by a lieutenant-governor^{[1]: 54–55}
• 1919–1947: Punjab administered by a governor^{[1]: 54–55}

• Category:People from Punjab Province (British India)
• History of Punjab
• Misl § List of misls