This article is about a state of India. For the geographical region, seePunjab. For the province of Pakistan, seePunjab, Pakistan. For other uses of the name, seePunjab (disambiguation).
Punjab (/pʌnˈdʒɑːb/pun-JAHB;[8]Punjabi:pañjāba,pronounced[pəɲˈd͡ʒaːb]ⓘ) is astate innorthwestern India. Forming part of the largerPunjab region of theIndian subcontinent, the state is bordered by the Indian states ofHimachal Pradesh to the north and northeast,Haryana to the south and southeast, andRajasthan to the southwest; by Indian-administeredJammu and Kashmir to the north andChandigarh to the east. To the west, it shares an international border with the identically namedPakistani province ofPunjab, and as such is sometimes referred to asEast Punjab orIndian Punjab for disambiguation purposes.[9] The state covers an area of 50,362 square kilometres (19,445 square miles), which is 1.53% of India's total geographical area,[10] making itthe 19th-largest Indian state by area out of 28 Indian states (20th largest, if Union Territories are considered). With over 27 million inhabitants, Punjab isthe 16th-largest Indian state by population, comprising23 districts.[11]Punjabi, written in theGurmukhi script, is the most widely spoken and the official language of the state.[12] The main ethnic group are thePunjabis, withSikhs (57.7%) andHindus (38.5%) forming the dominant religious groups.[13] The state capital, Chandigarh, is a union territory and also the capital of the neighboring state ofHaryana. Three of the five traditional Punjab rivers — theSutlej,Beas, andRavi — flow through the state.[14]
The Punjab region is noted as the site of one of the earliest urban societies, theIndus Valley Civilisation that flourished from about 3000 B.C. and declined rapidly 1,000 years later, following theIndo-Aryan migrations that overran the region in waves between 1500 and 500 B.C.[32] Frequent intertribal wars stimulated the growth of larger groupings ruled by chieftains and kings, who ruled local kingdoms known asMahajanapadas.[32] The rise of kingdoms and dynasties in Punjab is chronicled in the ancient Hindu epics, particularly theMahabharata.[32] The epic battles described in theMahabharata are chronicled as being fought in what is now the state of Haryana and historic Punjab. TheGandharas,Kambojas,Trigartas,Andhra,Pauravas,Bahlikas (Bactrian settlers of the Punjab),Yaudheyas, and others sided with theKauravas in the great battle fought atKurukshetra.[33] According to DrFauja Singh and Dr.L.M. Joshi: "There is no doubt that the Kambojas, Daradas, Kaikayas, Andhra, Pauravas, Yaudheyas, Malavas, Saindhavas, and Kurus had jointly contributed to the heroic tradition and composite culture of ancient Punjab."[34] The bulk of theRigveda was composed in the Punjab region between circa 1500 and 1200 BC,[35] while later Vedic scriptures were composed more eastwards, between theYamuna andGanges rivers. Thehistorical Vedic religion constituted the religious ideas and practices in Punjab during theVedic period (1500–500 BCE), centred primarily in the worship ofIndra.[36][37][38][i]
Rigvedais the oldest Hindu text that originated in the Punjab region.
The earliest known notable local king of this region was known asKing Porus, who fought the famousBattle of the Hydaspes againstAlexander the Great. His kingdom spanned between riversHydaspes (Jhelum) andAcesines (Chenab);Strabo had held the territory to contain almost 300 cities.[39] He (alongsideAbisares) had a hostile relationship with the Kingdom ofTaxila which was ruled by his extended family.[39] When the armies of Alexander crossed Indus in its eastward migration, probably inUdabhandapura, he was greeted by the-then ruler of Taxila,Omphis.[39] Omphis had hoped to force both Porus and Abisares into submission leveraging the might of Alexander's forces and diplomatic missions were mounted, but while Abisares accepted the submission, Porus refused.[39] This led Alexander to seek a face-off with Porus.[39] Thus began the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC; the exact site remains unknown.[39] The battle is thought to have resulted in a decisiveGreek victory; however, A. B. Bosworth warns against an uncritical reading of Greek sources who were exaggerative.[39]
Alexander later founded two cities—Nicaea at the site of victory andBucephalous at the battle-ground, in memory ofhis horse, who died soon after the battle.[39][a] Later,tetradrachms would be minted depicting Alexander on horseback, armed with asarissa and attacking a pair of Indians on an elephant.[39][40] Porus refused to surrender and wandered about atop an elephant, until he was wounded and his force routed.[39] When asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".[41] Despite the apparently one-sided results, Alexander was impressed by Porus and chose to not depose him.[42][43][44] Not only was his territory reinstated but also expanded with Alexander's forces annexing the territories of Glausaes, who ruled the area northeast of Porus' kingdom.[42]
After Alexander's death in 323 BCE,Perdiccas became the regent of his empire, and after Perdiccas's murder in 321 BCE,Antipater became the new regent.[45] According toDiodorus, Antipater recognised Porus's authority over the territories along theIndus River. However,Eudemus, who had served as Alexander'ssatrap in the Punjab region, treacherously killed Porus.[46] The battle is historically significant because it resulted in thesyncretism of ancient Greek political and cultural influences to the Indian subcontinent, yielding works such asGreco-Buddhist art, which continued to have an impact for the ensuing centuries. The region was then divided between theMaurya Empire and theGreco-Bactrian Kingdom in 302 B.C.E.Menander ISoter conquered Punjab and madeSagala (present-daySialkot) the capital of theIndo-Greek Kingdom.[47][48] Menander is noted for having become a patron and convert toGreco-Buddhism and he is widely regarded as the greatest of the Indo-Greek kings.[49] Greek influence in the region ended around 12 B.C.E. when the Punjab fell under theSasanians.
Medieval period
Following themuslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent at the beginning of the 8th century,Arab armies of theUmayyad Caliphate penetrated into South Asia introducingIslam into Punjab.[50][51] In the ninth century, theHindu Shahi dynasty emerged in the Punjab, ruling much of Punjab and eastern Afghanistan.[32] TheTurkicGhaznavids in the tenth century overthrew the Hindu Shahis and consequently ruled for 157 years, gradually declining as a power until theGhurid conquest ofLahore byMuhammad of Ghor in 1186, deposing the last Ghaznavid rulerKhusrau Malik.[52] Following the death ofMuhammad of Ghor in 1206, the Ghurid state fragmented and was replaced in northern India by theDelhi Sultanate. The Delhi Sultanate ruled the Punjab for the next three hundred years, led by five unrelated dynasties, theMamluks,Khalajis,Tughlaqs,Sayyids andLodis. A significant event in the late 15th century Punjab was the formation ofSikhism byGuru Nanak.[ii][53][54] The history of the Sikh faith is closely associated with the history of Punjab and the socio-political situation in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent in the 17th century.[55][56][57][58]
The hymns composed byGuru Nanak were later collected in theGuru Granth Sahib, the central religious scripture of the Sikhs.[59] The religion developed and evolved in times ofreligious persecution, gaining converts from both Hinduism and Islam.[60]Mughal rulers of India tortured and executed two of the Sikh gurus—Guru Arjan (1563–1605) andGuru Tegh Bahadur (1621–1675)—afterthey refused to convert to Islam.[61][62][63][64][65] The persecution of Sikhs triggered the founding of theKhalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699 as an order to protect thefreedom of conscience andreligion,[61][66] with members expressing the qualities of aSant-Sipāhī ('saint-soldier').[67][68] The lifetime of Guru Nanak coincided with the conquest of northern India byBabur and establishment of theMughal Empire. Jahangir ordered the execution ofGuru Arjun Dev, while in Mughal custody, for supporting his sonKhusrau Mirza's rival claim to the throne.[69] Guru Arjan Dev's death led to the sixth GuruGuru Hargobind to declare sovereignty in the creation of theAkal Takht and the establishment of a fort to defendAmritsar. Jahangir then jailed Guru Hargobind atGwalior, but released him after a number of years when he no longer felt threatened. The succeeding son of Jahangir,Shah Jahan, took offence at Guru Hargobind's declaration and after a series of assaults on Amritsar, forced the Sikhs to retreat to theSivalik Hills.[70] The ninth Guru,Guru Tegh Bahadur, moved the Sikh community toAnandpur and travelled extensively to visit and preach in defiance ofAurangzeb, who attempted to installRam Rai as new guru.
Modern period
The Mughals came to power in the early sixteenth century and gradually expanded to control all of the Punjab from their capital atLahore. As Mughal power weakened, Afghan rulers took control of the region.[32] Contested byMarathas and Afghans, the region was the center of the growing influence of the Sikhs, who expanded and established theSikh Empire in 1799 as the Mughals and Afghans weakened.[71] TheCis-Sutlej states were a group of states in modern Punjab andHaryana states lying between the Sutlej River on the north, the Himalayas on the east, the Yamuna River andDelhi District on the south, andSirsa district on the west. These states were ruled by theSikh Confederacy.[72] The empire existed from 1799, whenRanjit Singh capturedLahore, to 1849, when it was defeated and conquered in theSecond Anglo-Sikh War. It was forged on the foundations of theKhalsa from a collection of autonomousSikhmisls.[73][74] At its peak in the 19th century, the Empire extended from theKhyber Pass in the west to westernTibet in the east, and fromMithankot in the south toKashmir in the north. It was divided into four provinces:Lahore, in Punjab, which became the Sikh capital;Multan, also in Punjab;Peshawar; and Kashmir from 1799 to 1849. Religiously diverse, with an estimated population of 3.5million in 1831 (making it the19th most populous country at the time),[75] it was the last major region of the Indian subcontinent tobe annexed by theBritish Empire. The Sikh Empire spanned a total of over 200,000 sq mi (520,000 km2) at its zenith.[76][77][78]
After Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by theEast India Company to launch theFirst andSecond Anglo-Sikh Wars. The country was finally annexed and dissolved at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separateprincely states and theprovince of Punjab. Eventually, a Lieutenant Governorship was established in Lahore as a direct representative ofthe Crown.[79]: 221
The Punjab was annexed by theEast India Company in 1849. Although nominally part of theBengal Presidency it was administratively independent. During theIndian Rebellion of 1857, apart fromRevolt led by Ahmed Khan Kharal andMurree rebellion of 1857, the Punjab remained relatively peaceful.[80] In 1858, under the terms of the Queen's Proclamation issued byQueen Victoria, the Punjab came under the direct rule of Britain. Colonial rule had a profound impact on all areas of Punjabi life. Economically it transformed the Punjab into the richest farming area of India, socially it sustained the power of large landowners and politically it encouraged cross-communal co-operation among land owning groups.[81] The Punjab also became the major centre of recruitment into theIndian Army. By patronising influential local allies and focusing administrative, economic and constitutional policies on the rural population, the British ensured the loyalty of its large rural population.[81] Administratively, colonial rule instated a system of bureaucracy and measure of the law. The 'paternal' system of the ruling elite was replaced by 'machine rule' with a system of laws, codes, and procedures. For purposes of control, the British established new forms of communication and transportation, including post systems, railways, roads, and telegraphs. The creation ofCanal Colonies in western Punjab between 1860 and 1947 brought 14 million acres of land under cultivation, and revolutionised agricultural practices in the region.[81] To the agrarian and commercial class was added a professional middle class that had risen the social ladder through the use of the English education, which opened up new professions in law, government, and medicine.[82] Despite these developments, colonial rule was marked by exploitation of resources. For the purpose of exports, the majority of external trade was controlled by British export banks. The Imperial government exercised control over the finances of Punjab and took the majority of the income for itself.[83]
In 1919,Reginald Dyer ordered his troops to fire on a crowd of demonstrators, mostly Sikhs inAmritsar. TheJallianwala massacre fuelled theIndian independence movement.[32] Nationalists declared the independence of India from Lahore in 1930 but were quickly suppressed.[32] The struggle for Indian independence witnessed competing and conflicting interests in the Punjab. When the Second World War broke out, nationalism in British India had already divided into religious movements.[32] The landed elites of the Muslim, Hindu and Sikh communities had loyally collaborated with the British since annexation, supported theUnionist Party and were hostile to the Congress party led independence movement.[84] Among the peasantry and urban middle classes, the Hindus were the most activeNational Congress supporters, the Sikhs flocked to theAkali movement while the Muslims eventually supported theMuslim League.[84] Many Sikhs and other minorities supported the Hindus, who promised a secular multicultural and multireligious society. In March 1940, the All-India Muslim League passed theLahore Resolution, demanding the creation of a separate state from Muslim majority areas in British India. This triggered bitter protests by the Hindus and Sikhs in Punjab, who could not accept living in a Muslim Islamic state.[85]
After the partition of the subcontinent had been decided, special meetings of the Western and Eastern Section of the Legislative Assembly were held on 23 June 1947 to decide whether or not the Province of the Punjab be partitioned. After voting on both sides, partition was decided and the existing Punjab Legislative Assembly was also divided intoWest PunjabLegislative Assembly and theEast Punjab Legislative Assembly. This last Assembly before independence, held its last sitting on 4 July 1947.[86] During this period, the British granted separate independence to India and Pakistan, setting off massive communal violence as Punjabi Muslims fled to Pakistan and Hindu and Sikh Punjabis fled east to India.[32] The Sikhs later demanded a Punjabi-speaking Punjab state with an autonomous Sikh government.[32]
Post-colonial era
During thecolonial era, the various districts and princely states that made upPunjab Province were religiously eclectic, each containing significant populations ofPunjabi Muslims,Punjabi Hindus,Punjabi Sikhs,Punjabi Christians, along with other ethnic and religious minorities. However, a major consequence of independence and the partition of Punjab Province in 1947 was the sudden shift towards religious homogeneity occurred in all districts across province and region owing to the new international border that cut through the subdivision.
The demographic shift was captured when comparing decadal census data taken in 1941 and 1951 respectively, and was primarily due to wide scale migration but also caused by large-scalereligious cleansing riots which were witnessed across the region at the time. According to historical demographerTim Dyson, in the eastern regions of Punjab that ultimately became Indian Punjab following independence, districts that were 66% Hindu in 1941 became 80% Hindu in 1951; those that were 20% Sikh became 50% Sikh in 1951. Conversely, in the western regions of Punjab that ultimately becamePakistani Punjab, all districts became almost exclusively Muslim by 1951.[87]
Following independence, several small Punjabi princely states, including Patiala,acceded to the Union of India and were united into thePEPSU. In 1956 this was integrated with the state of East Punjab to create a new, enlarged Indian state called simply "Punjab".Punjab Day is celebrated across the state on 1 November every year marking the formation of a Punjabi language speaking state under the Punjab Reorganisation Act (1966).[88][89]
In 1966, following Hindu and Sikh Punjabi demands, the Indian government divided Punjab into the state of Punjab and the Hindi majority-speaking states ofHaryana andHimachal Pradesh.[32]
During the 1960s, Punjab was known for its prosperity within India, largely due to its fertile lands and industrious inhabitants. However, a significant portion of the Sikh community felt a sense of disparity from the central government of India. The roots of such grievances stretched back several decades, with the primary issue revolving around the distribution of water from the trio of rivers – Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej – that flowed across the Punjabi territory.[90]
Although Punjab had these waterways running across its lands, it was lawfully granted only a quarter of the water, precisely 24%, as per theInter-State Water Disputes Act. The rest, a staggering 76%, was assigned to Rajasthan and Haryana. To many Punjabis, especially the farming community who heavily depended on these waters for irrigation, this allocation seemed inequitable. The water distribution was a significant contributing factor to the growing sense of disgruntlement against the central government.[90]
The seeds of discontent further sprouted with the advent of the Green Revolution during the 1960s. This initiative sought to boost agricultural output by introducing high-yield seed varieties, and enhancing the use of fertilisers and irrigation. In the midst of this transformative phase, Punjab became known as India's "food basket", contributing considerably to the nation's agricultural production. Yet, the financial profits garnered from this agricultural surge weren't fairly distributed.[91]
The majority of the gains were hoarded by landowners, who typically owned large plots and were best positioned to exploit the emerging technologies and farming practices. The working class and economically underprivileged segments of society, who often toiled as labourers on these farms, were left with only minor benefits. This uneven distribution of wealth conflicted sharply with Sikh religious customs, which preached economic justice and fair wealth distribution.[92]
The Green Revolution dealt a severe blow to Punjab's small farmers. The larger landowners, with their access to abundant resources and capital, were well-suited to adopt the agricultural innovations brought by the Revolution. This situation sparked further resentment among small farmers, many of whom were forced to relinquish their lands, unable to compete, thereby intensifying the economic chasm.[90]
Beyond the farming sector, Punjab lacked substantial employment opportunities. An excessive focus on agriculture resulted in the state's industrial sector's neglect, leaving it notably underdeveloped. This skewed concentration on agriculture meant that many economically challenged peasants, without feasible employment alternatives, felt cornered and disgruntled.[91]
Even the affluent landowners, the initial beneficiaries of the Green Revolution, felt the economic pinch due to soaring prices of farming inputs like fertilisers and pesticides, and the dearth of essential resources like electricity and water.[92]
Although the Green Revolution was primarily conceived to amplify productivity, it couldn't sustain this increased output over a prolonged period. The introduction of novel crop varieties led to a decline in genetic diversity, thus introducing a new ecological risk. Furthermore, these new crops demanded more water and were highly dependent on chemical fertilisers, both of which had deleterious environmental consequences. Overuse of water led to groundwater resource depletion, and heavy chemical usage adversely affected soil and water systems, further undermining long-term productivity.[90]
From 1981 to 1995 the state suffered a 14-year-longinsurgency. Problems began due to disputes between Punjabi Sikhs and the central government of the Republic of India. Tensions escalated throughout the early 1980s and eventually culminated withOperation Blue Star in 1984; an Indian Army operation aimed at the dissident Sikh community of Punjab. Shortly thereafter, Indian Prime MinisterIndira Gandhi wasassassinated by two of her Sikh bodyguards. The decade that followed was noted for widespread inter-communal violence and accusations of genocide on the Sikh community by the Indian government.[93][better source needed]
Geography
Punjab is in northwestern India and has a total area of 50,362 square kilometres (19,445 sq mi). Punjab is bordered by Pakistan'sPunjab province on the west,Jammu and Kashmir on the north,Himachal Pradesh on the northeast andHaryana andRajasthan on the south.[9] Most of Punjab lies in a fertile, alluvial plain with perennial rivers and an extensive irrigation canal system.[94] A belt of undulatinghills extends along the northeastern part of the state at the foot of the Himalayas. Its average elevation is 300 metres (980 ft) above sea level, with a range from 180 metres (590 ft) in the southwest to more than 500 metres (1,600 ft) around the northeast border. The southwest of the state is semi-arid, eventually merging into theThar Desert.
Punjab lies in theIndus River Basin. Of the five Punjab rivers, three — Sutlej, Beas and Ravi — flow through the Indian state and empty into theIndus River in Pakistan. The Sutlej and Ravi define parts of the international border with Pakistan.
The soil characteristics are influenced to a limited extent by the topography, vegetation and parent rock. The variation in soil profile characteristics are much more pronounced because of the regional climatic differences.[95] Punjab is divided into three distinct regions on the basis of soil types: southwestern, central, and eastern. Punjab falls underseismic zones II, III, and IV. Zone II is considered a low-damage risk zone; zone III is considered a moderate-damage risk zone; and zone IV is considered a high-damage risk zone.[96]
Rivers
The major rivers of the Indian state of Punjab, which are:
The geography andsubtropical latitudinal location of Punjab lead to large variations in temperature from month to month. Even though only limited regions experience temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F), ground frost is commonly found in the majority of Punjab during the winter season. The temperature rises gradually with highhumidity and overcast skies. However, the rise in temperature is steep when the sky is clear and humidity is low.[97]
The maximum temperatures usually occur in mid-May and June. The temperature remains above 40 °C (104 °F) in the entire region during this period. Ludhiana recorded the highest maximum temperature at 46.1 °C (115.0 °F) with Patiala and Amritsar recording 45.5 °C (113.9 °F). The maximum temperature during the summer in Ludhiana remains above 41 °C (106 °F) for a duration of one and a half months. These areas experience the lowest temperatures in January. The sun rays are oblique during these months and the cold winds control the temperature at daytime.[97]
Punjab experiences its minimum temperature from December to February. The lowest temperature was recorded at Amritsar (0.2 °C (32.4 °F)) and Ludhiana stood second with 0.5 °C (32.9 °F). The minimum temperature of the region remains below 5 °C (41 °F) for almost two months during the winter season. The highest minimum temperature of these regions in June is more than the daytime maximum temperatures experienced in January and February. Ludhiana experiences minimum temperatures above 27 °C (81 °F) for more than two months. The annual average temperature in the entire state is approximately 21 °C (70 °F). Further, the mean monthly temperature range varies between 9 °C (48 °F) in July to approximately 18 °C (64 °F) in November.[97]
Winter (early December to the end of February).[97]
Apart from these three, the state experiences transitional seasons like:
Pre-summer season (March to mid-April): This is the period of transition between winter and summer.
Post-monsoon season (September to end of November): This is the period of transition between monsoon and winter seasons.[97]
Summer
Punjab starts experiencing mildly hot temperatures in February. The actual summer season commences in mid-April and the heat continues until the end of August. High temperatures between May and August hover between 40 and 47°C. The area experiences atmospheric pressure variations during the summer months. The atmospheric pressure of the region remains around 987 millibar during February and it reaches 970 millibar in June.[97]
Monsoon
Punjab's rainy season begins in the first week of July as monsoon currents generated in theBay of Bengal bring rain to the region. The monsoon lasts up to mid-September.[97]
Post-Monsoon transitional season
The monsoon begins to reduce by the second week of September. This brings a gradual change in climate and temperature. The time between October and November is the transitional period between monsoon and winter seasons. Weather during this period is generally temperate and dry.[97]
Winter
Temperature variation is minimal in January. The mean night and day temperatures fall to 5 °C (41 °F) and 12 °C (54 °F), respectively.[97]
Post-Winter transitional season
The effects of winter diminish by the first week of March. The hot summer season commences in mid-April. This period is marked by occasional showers with hail storms andsqualls that cause extensive damage to crops. The winds remain dry and warm during the last week of March, commencing the harvest period.[97]
Rainfall
Monsoon Rainfall
Monsoon season provides most of the rainfall for the region. Punjab receives rainfall from the monsoon current of the Bay of Bengal. This monsoon current enters the state from the southeast in the first week of July.[97]
Winter Rainfall
The winter season remains very cool with temperatures falling below freezing at some places. Winter also brings in some western disturbances.[97] Rainfall in the winter provides relief to the farmers as some of the winter crops in the region of Shivalik Hills are entirely dependent on this rainfall. As per meteorological statistics, the sub-Shivalik area receives more than 100 millimetres (3.9 in) of rainfall in the winter months.[97]
According to the World Air Quality Report 2024, Mullanpur (Punjab) is one of the world's 20 most polluted city in India.[109]
The fauna of the area is rich, with 396 types of birds, 214 kinds ofLepidoptera, 55 varieties of fish, 20 types of reptiles, and 19 kinds of mammals. The state of Punjab has large wetland areas, bird sanctuaries that house numerous species of birds, and many zoological parks. Wetlands include the national wetlandHari-Ke-Pattan, the wetland ofKanjli, and the wetlands of Kapurthala Sutlej. Wildlife sanctuaries include the Harike in the district of Tarn Taran Sahib, the Zoological Park in Rupnagar, Chhatbir Bansar Garden in Sangrur,Aam Khas Bagh in Sirhind, Amritsar's famousRam Bagh Palace, Shalimar Garden in Kapurthala, and the famous Baradari Garden in the city of Patiala.[110]
Flora
Punjab has the lowest forest cover as a percentage of land area ofany Indian state, with 3.6% of its total area under forest cover as of 2017.[111] During theGreen Revolution, large tracts of jungles were cut-down in the state to make room for agriculture and forested areas were also cleared for road infrastructure and residential homes.[111] Various NGOs are working towards afforestation and reforestation of the state by launching educational drives, planting saplings, working towards regulatory changes, and pressuring organisations to follow environmental laws.[111] One NGO, EcoSikh, has planted over 100 forests, composed of native plant species, in the state using the JapaneseMiyawaki methodology that are named 'Guru Nanak Sacred Forests'.[112][113][114] Native plant species are facing the risk of extirpation from the state but planting mini-forests throughout the land can help prevent this from occurring.[115] Prior to the Green Revolution,Butea monosperma (known as 'dhak' in Punjabi) trees were found in abundance in the state.[116]
Fauna
Inlaid stone art (jaratkari) from the walls of theGolden Temple shrine in Amritsar depicting a predatory cat hunting a blackbuck antelope
A few of the rivers in Punjab have crocodiles, including reintroducedgharials in theBeas River after half a century of their extirpation from the state.[117][118][119]Indus river dolphins can be found in theHarike Wetland.[120] The extraction of silk from silkworms is another industry that flourishes in the state. Production of bee honey is done in some parts of Punjab. The southern plains are desert land; hence, camels can be seen.Buffaloes graze around the banks of rivers. The northeastern part is home to animals like horses. Wildlife sanctuaries have many more species of wild animals like the otter, wild boar, wildcat, fruit bat, hog deer, flying fox, squirrel, and mongoose. Naturally formed forests can be seen in the Shivalik ranges in the districts of Ropar, Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur. Patiala is home to the Bir forest while the wetlands area in Punjab is home to the Mand forest.[121] The local subspecies of blackbuck,A. c. rajputanae, is facing the risk ofextirpation from the state.[122][123][124]
Botanical gardens exist throughout Punjab. There is a zoological park and a tiger safari park, as well as three parks dedicated to deer.[121]
Punjab is home to 2.3% of India's population; with a density of 551 persons per km2. According to the provisional results of the2011 national census, Punjab has a population of 27,743,338, making it the16th most populated state in India. Of which male and female are 14,639,465 and 13,103,873 respectively.[128] 32% of Punjab's population consists ofDalits.[129] In the state, the rate of population growth is 13.9% (2011), lower than national average. According to the nation family health survey 2019–21, total fertility rate of Punjab was 1.6 children per women.[130][131]
Out of total population, 37.5% people live in urban regions. The total figure of population living in urban areas is 10,399,146 of which 5,545,989 are males and while remaining 4,853,157 are females. The urban population in the last 10 years has increased by 37.5%.
Numbers of rural and urban population in Punjab[132]
Year
Rural (in millions)
Urban (in millions)
Total (in millions)
Rural %
Urban %
2011
17.32
10.3
27.70
62.51%
37.49%
2001
16.10
8.26
24.36
66.08%
33.92%
1991
14.29
5.99
20.28
70.45%
29.55%
1981
12.14
4.65
16.79
72.32%
27.68%
1971
10.33
3.22
13.55
76.27%
23.73%
Gender
There has been a constant decline in thesex ratio of the state. The sex ratio in Punjab was 895 females per 1000 males, which was below thenational average of 940.In June 2023, state government underAam Aadmi Party announced that all women on the birth of a second girl child will receive 6000 rupees.[133]
Theliteracy rate rose to 75.84% as per 2011 population census, which was only slightly higher than thenational average of 74.04%. Of that, male literacy stands at 80.4% while female literacy is at 70.7%. In actual numbers, total literates in Punjab stands at 18,707,137 of which males were 10,436,056 and females were 8,271,081.The median number of years of schooling completed in the state was 6.5 for females and 7.8 for males, as of 2011.[134]
Punjabi is the native and sole official language of Punjab and as of the 2011 census, is spoken as first language by 24.9 million people, or roughly 90% of the state's population.[2]Hindi is spoken by 2.18 million, or 7.9% of the population,Bagri has 234,000 speakers (or 0.8%), while the remaining 413,000 (or 1.5%) spoke other languages.[135]
According to the 2011 census, 73.33% of scheduled caste people reside in rural areas and 26.67% in urban areas of Punjab. Punjab accounts for 4.3% of the SC population of the country, despite having only 2.3% of the total population. The population growth rate of SC population between 2001 and 2011 was 26.06%, compared to 13.89% for the state as a whole. Literacy rate among SCs was 64.81%, compared to 75.84% of the state as a whole.[139]
As perNational Family Health Survey (NFHS-4, 2015–16), theinfant mortality rate was 40 per 1000 live births before the age of one year forscheduled castes, compared to 29 per 1000 births for the state as a whole. The infant mortality rate forOther Backward Castes (OBC) was 21 per 1000 live births and 22 per 1000 for those who are not from SC and OBC classes. Although the prevalence ofanaemia (low levels of haemoglobin in the blood) has been found quite high among all population groups in Punjab, it was still higher among the SC population than other groups. For the women between the ages of 15 and 49 years, the prevalence of anaemia among SC women was 56.9%, compared to 53.5% for the state as a whole. Among the children between the ages of 6 and 59 months, the rate of anaemia for SC children was 60%, compared to 56.9% for the state as a whole.[139]
Below is the list of districts according to the percentage of their SC population, according to 2011 census.[139][140][141][142]
Scheduled Caste population by district (2011)[140]
Largest Religious Affiliation By Tehsil in Punjab, 2011 Census
Punjab has the largest population ofSikhs in India and is the only state where Sikhs form a majority, numbering around 16 million forming 57.7% of the state population.[13]Hinduism is the second largest religion in the Indian state of Punjab numbering around 10.68million and forming 38.5% of the state's population and a majority inDoaba region.Islam is followed by 535,489 accounting 1.9% of the population and are mainly concentrated inMalerkotla andQadian. Other smaller segments of religions existing in Punjab areChristianity practised by 1.3%,Jainism practised by 0.2%,Buddhism practised by 0.1% and others 0.3%. Sikhs form a majority in 17 districts out of the total 23 districts while Hindus form the majority in 5 districts, namely,Pathankot,Jalandhar,Hoshiarpur,Fazilka andShaheed Bhagat Singh Nagar districts.[143]
Nabha,Patiala State fully Included in Punjab its some area also fall into haryana (Mahendragarth, Narwana, Pinjore, Bawal) & himachal (Kandaghat) which also added here andJind State some area also fall in Punjab (sangrur etc.) which not added here.
TheSikh shrine,Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib), is in the city of Amritsar, which houses theShiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, the topmost Sikh religious body. TheSri Akal Takht Sahib, which is within the Golden Temple complex, is the highest temporal seat of Sikhs. Of the five Takhts (Temporal Seats of religious authority) ofSikhism, three are in Punjab. These are Sri Akal Takht Sahib,Damdama Sahib andAnandpur Sahib. At least one SikhGurdwara can be found in almost every village in the state, as well as in the towns and cities (in various architectural styles and sizes).
Punjab is governed through a parliamentary system of representative democracy. Each of the states of India possesses a parliamentary system of government, with a ceremonial stateGovernor, appointed by thePresident of India on the advice of the central government. The head of government is an indirectly electedChief Minister who is vested with most of the executive powers. The term length of the government is five years. The state legislature, theVidhan Sabha, is the unicameralPunjab Legislative Assembly, with 117 members elected from single-seat constituencies.[163]
The three major political parties in the state are theAam Aadmi Party, a centrist to left-wing party, theShiromani Akali Dal, aSikhright-wingPunjabiyat party and theIndian National Congress, acentristcatch-all party.[165]President's rule has been imposed in Punjab eight times so far, since 1950, for different reasons. In terms of the absolute number of days, Punjab was under the President's rule for 3,510 days, which is approximately 10 years. Much of this was in the 80s during the height of militancy in Punjab. Punjab was under the President's rule for five continuous years from 1987 to 1992.
Punjab state law and order is maintained byPunjab Police. Punjab police is headed by its DGP, Dinkar Gupta,[166] and has 70,000 employees. It manages state affairs through 22 district heads known as SSP.
Administrative set-up
Districts of Punjab along with their headquartersAdministrative divisions of Punjab
These districts are officially divided among 5 administrative divisions: Faridkot, Ferozepur, Jalandhar, Patiala and Ropar(created on 31 December 2010, which was a part of Patiala Division earlier).[167]
Administrative Divisions and Corresponding Districts of Punjab
Each district is under the administrative control of aDeputy Commissioner (DC), anIAS officer. The DC functions as theCollector for land revenue administration and as theDistrict Magistrate (DM) for maintaining law and order in the district. The DC is assisted by Additional Deputy Commissioners (ADCs) at collectorate. The districts are subdivided into subdivisions and tehsils, headed bySub-divisional magistrates (SDMs) and Tehsildars. The districts are subdivided into 93tehsils, which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records comes under the administrative control of aTehsildar. Each Tehsil consists of blocks which are total 150 in number. These blocks consist ofRevenue Villages. There are total number of revenue villages in the state is 12,278.
There are 23Zila Parishads, 136Municipal Committees and 22 Improvement Trusts looking after 143 towns and 14cities of Punjab. The local government institutions such asPanchayats looking after the governance of rural areas andmunicipalities looking after the governance of urban areas.
The capital city of the state isChandigarh and largest city of the state isLudhiana. Out of total population of Punjab, 37.48% people live in urban regions. The absolute urban population living in urban areas is 10,399,146 of which 5,545,989 are males and while remaining 4,853,157 are females. The urban population in the last 10 years has increased by 37.48%. The major cities areLudhiana,Amritsar,Jalandhar,Mohali,Patiala andBathinda.
Traditional regions
As per H. S. Bhatti, the region of Indian Punjab can be further divided into three main regions: Majha, Doaba, and Malwa (he classifies Puadh as a sub-region subsumed under Malwa), which are based upon the flow of rivers and speak different dialects of the Punjabi language.[168] They comprise the following districts (as they existed in 2000):[168]
Doaba: Jalandhar, Hoshiarpur, Kapurthala, and Nawanshahr districts[168]
Malwa: Bathinda, Faridkot, Firozpur, Muktsar, Moga, Mansa, Sangrur, Ludhiana, Patiala, Ropar, and Fatehgarh Sahib districts[168]
Another way of dividing up the regions of Punjab (which is not well demarcated and often confusing) is based uponbet (area prone to flooding and comes into the flow of rivers),dhaha (old-bed of a river which are high and sandy but still at risk of flooding), anddakar (far-away from river-banks and usually safe from flooding).[168]
Punjab'sGDP is₹5.42 trillion (US$64 billion).[29] Punjab is one of the most fertile regions in India. The region is ideal for wheat-growing.Rice, sugar cane,fruits andvegetables are also grown. Indian Punjab is called the "Granary of India" or "India's bread-basket".[169] It produces 10.26% of India's cotton, 19.5% of India's wheat, and 11% of India's rice. TheFirozpur andFazilka Districts are the largest producers of wheat and rice in the state. In worldwide terms, Indian Punjab produces 2% of the world's cotton, 2% of its wheat and 1% of its rice.[169]
Punjab ranked first in GDP per capita among Indian states in 1981 and fourth in 2001, but has experienced slower growth than the rest of India, having thesecond-slowest GDP per capita growth rate of all Indian states and UTs between 2000 and 2010, behind onlyManipur.[170][171][172][173][174][175][176]
Punjab's economy has been primarily agriculture-based since theGreen Revolution due to the presence of abundant water sources and fertile soils;[177] most of the state lies in a fertile alluvial plain with many rivers and an extensive irrigation canal system.[94] The largest cultivated crop iswheat. Other important crops arerice,cotton,sugarcane,pearl millet,maize,barley andfruit. Rice and wheat are doublecropped in Punjab with rice stalks being burned off over millions of acres prior to the planting of wheat. This widespread practice is polluting and wasteful.[178] Despite covering only 1.53%[10] of its geographical area, Punjab makes up for about 15–20%[179][180][181][182] of India's wheat production, around 12%[183][184][185][186] of its rice production, and around 5%[179][187][188][189] of its milk production, being known asIndia's breadbasket.[190][191] About 80%[192]-95%[193] of Punjab's agricultural land is owned by itsJat Sikh community despite it only forming 21%[194] of the state's population.[195][196][197]
In Punjab the consumption of fertiliser per hectare is 223.46kg as compared to 90kg nationally. The state has been awarded the National Productivity Award for agriculture extension services for ten years, from 1991 to 1992 to 1998–99 and from 2001 to 2003–04. In recent years a drop in productivity has been observed, mainly due to falling fertility of the soil. This is believed to be due to excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides over the years. Another worry is the rapidly falling water table on which almost 90% of the agriculture depends; alarming drops have been witnessed in recent years. By some estimates, groundwater is falling by a meter or more per year.[198][199]
According to the India State Hunger Index 2019–20, Punjab falls under the "Moderate" hunger category in India.[200]
All the cities and towns of Punjab are connected by four-lanenational highways. TheGrand Trunk Road, also known as "NH1", connectsKolkata toPeshawar, passing throughAmritsar andJalandhar.National highways passing through the state are ranked the best in the country[by whom?] with widespread road networks that serve isolated towns as well as the border region. Amritsar and Ludhiana are among several Indian cities that have the highest accident rates in India.[203]
The following expressways will pass through Punjab:
Primary and Secondary education is mainly affiliated toPunjab School Education Board. Punjab is served by several institutions ofhigher education, including 23 universities that provide undergraduate and postgraduate courses in all the major arts, humanities, science, engineering, law, medicine, veterinary science, and business. Reading and writingPunjabi language is compulsory untilmatriculation for every student[205] failing which the schools attract fine or cancellation of licence.[206]
District-wise Teacher-Pupil Ratio of Class 1 to 5 in 2017 (As on 30 September)[207]
Sr. No.
District
Ratio
S.N.
District
Ratio
S.N.
District
Ratio
1
Hoshiarpur
15
8
Kapurthala
20
16
Barnala
26
2
Rupnagar
16
9
Faridkot
20
17
Fazilka
27
3
Fatehgarh Sahib
16
10
Sri Muktsar Sahib
20
18
Amritsar
30
4
SAS Nagar
17
11
Jalandhar
21
19
Ferozpur
30
5
SBS Nagar
18
12
Sangrur
21
20
Mansa
30
6
Gurdaspur
18
13
Patiala
22
21
Moga
31
7
Pathankot
19
14
Ludhiana
24
22
Taran taran
46
15
Bathinda
24
The table below shows the average population per school in each district of Punjab as of 2011 census and the total number of schools as of 2017. This includes government schools, affiliated schools, recognised and aided schools.[211] Note:- Pathankot and Fazilka were part of Gurdaspur and Ferozepur respectively, before 2011, so separate data for them regarding the average population per school is not available.
District-wise average price per school as of 2011 census and total number of schools as of 2017[211]
Punjab has 23 universities, of which ten are private, 9 are state, one is central and three aredeemed universities. Punjab has 104,000 (104,000) engineering seats.[214]
Punjab is also increasingly becoming known for education of yoga and naturopathy, with its student slowly adopting these as their career. The Board of Naturopathy and Yoga Science (BNYS) is located in the state.[215] Regional College Dinanagar is the first college to be opened in Dinanagar Town.[216]
According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) data from 2015–16, the ratestunting (low height for age) for children between the ages of 0–59 months was 26%, which was lower than the national average of 38%. As of 2015–16, 56.6% children between the ages of 0–57 months were said to be having some degree ofanaemia in Punjab.[217] According to the national family health survey of 2020–21, anaemia rate increased to 71.1%.[218]
According to the National Family Health Survey 2020–21, the percentage of people in Punjab above the age of 15 who consumealcohol was 22.8% for men and 0.3% for women. The rate oftobacco usage in the same age group was 12.9% for men and 0.4% for women. According to the same report, the percentage of males in the age group of 15–49 who wereobese oroverweight was 32.2% in 2020–21, which an increase from the 27.8% in 2015–16. For women in the same age group, the number in 2020–21 was 40.8% which was an increase from 31.3% in 2015–16. Moreover, according to the same report, 63.1% of the men and 72.8% of the women have high riskwaist-to-hip ratio, as of 2020–21.[218]
The table below shows the district wise number of registered doctors and other registered medical personnel in Punjab, in year 2018.[219][220]Note:- The ranks of the districts in this table are in the descending order of the number of registered doctors.
District wise number of registered doctors and other medical personnel in Punjab, in year 2018[219][220][221]
Sr. No.
District
Doctors
Nurses
Midwives
1
Ludhiana
4,989
10,904
8,121
2
Amritsar
4,141
6,531
4,018
3
Patiala
3,935
3,279
1,963
4
Jalandhar
3,268
5,119
4,081
5
Hoshiarpur
1,640
3,944
2,806
6
Sangrur
1,286
2,567
3,374
7
Gurdaspur
1,058
6,118
6,472
8
Ferozpur
1,036
4,459
3,096
9
Bathinda
898
2,104
2,774
10
Rupnagar
864
2,409
2,159
11
Kapurthala
737
2,165
766
12
SAS Nagar
545
2,790
1,788
13
Faridkot
499
2,997
3,037
14
Mansa
325
2,616
3,424
15
Moga
312
3,172
2,084
16
Sri Muktsar Sahib
283
2,648
839
17
SBS Nagar
262
2,516
383
18
Barnala
200
2,037
825
19
Fatehgarh Sahib
198
2,064
306
20
Fazilka
162
460
987
21
Pathankot
145
50
120
22
Tarn Taran
84
3,378
2,370
Outside State Territory
630
2,855
989
Punjab
29,772
77,182
56,782
The table below shows the population served per doctor, pernurse and permidwife by districts of Punjab, in the year 2018.[222][223][224][225]Note:- The ranks of the districts in the table are in the ascending order of the population served per doctor.
Population served per doctor, per nurse and per midwife in districts of Punjab, in year 2018[222][223][224][225]
Sr. No.
District
Doctor
Nurse
Midwife
1
Faridkot
499
224
225
2
Patiala
551
161
1,172
3
Amritsar
661
424
689
4
Jalandhar
729
465
5,943
5
Ludhiana
780
357
506
6
Rupnagar
844
302
340
7
Bathinda
898
744
585
8
Hoshiarpur
1,017
423
654
9
Gurdaspur
1,058
284
280
10
Ferozpur
1,083
251
377
11
Kapurthala
1,171
398
1,226
12
Sangrur
1,404
703
558
13
Mansa
2,073
319
2,376
14
SAS Nagar
2,264
442
739
15
SBS Nagar
2,408
250
2,183
16
Barnala
3,212
320
714
17
Fatehgarh Sahib
3,286
315
2,745
18
Moga
3,456
339
318
19
Sri Muktsar Sahib
3,561
380
1,375
20
Pathankot
4,943
14,336
7,389
21
Fazilka
7,089
2,496
1,258
22
Tarn Taran
15,210
378
568
Punjab
522
1,234
950
The table given below shows the population served per doctor in Punjab, by years.[223]
Population served per doctor in Punjab, by years[223]
Year
Population
Year
Population
2018
522
2000
1,490
2012
1,170
1999
1,485
2010
1,250
1998
1,483
2008
1,225
1997
1,472
2007
1,316
1996
1,499
2006
1,263
1995
1,487
2005
1,388
1994
1,501
2004
1,468
1993
1,608
2003
1,489
1992
1,481
2002
1,324
1991
1,514
2001
1,472
1990
1,589
The table below shows the district wise population served per bed.[226]
Population served per bed in districts of Punjab, in year 2018[226]
The culture of Punjab has many elements includingmusic such asbhangra, an extensive religious and non-religiousdance tradition, a longhistory of poetry in the Punjabi language, a significantPunjabi film industry that dates back to before Partition, a vast range ofcuisine, which has become widely popular abroad, and a number of seasonal and harvest festivals such asLohri,[233]Basant,Vaisakhi andTeeyan,[234][235][236] all of which are celebrated in addition to the religious festivals of India.
Punjabi wedding traditions and ceremonies are a strong reflection of Punjabi culture. Marriage ceremonies are known for their rich rituals, songs, dances, food and dresses, which have evolved over many centuries.[238][239]
Bhangra dance began as a folk dance conducted byPunjabi farmers to celebrate the coming of the harvest season. The specific moves ofBhangra reflect the manner in which villagers farmed their land. This hybrid dance becameBhangra. Thefolk dance has been popularised in the western world byPunjabis in England, Canada and the US where competitions are held.[241] It is seen in the West as an expression ofSouth Asian culture as a whole.[242] Today,Bhangra dance survives in different forms and styles all over the globe – including pop music, filmsoundtracks, collegiate competitions and cultural shows.
The folk heritage of the Punjab reflects its thousands of years of history. WhileMajhi is considered to be the standard dialect ofPunjabi language, there are a number ofPunjabi dialects through which the people communicate. These includeMalwai,Doabi andPuadhi. The songs, ballads, epics and romances are generally written and sung in these dialects.
The most famous of the romantic love songs areMayhiah,Dhola andBoliyan.[244] Punjabi romantic dances includeDhamaal,Bhangra,Giddha, Dhola, andSammi and some other local folk dances.[245]
Most early Punjabi literary works are in verse form, with prose not becoming more common until later periods. Throughout its history,Punjabi literature has sought to inform and inspire, educate and entertain. The Punjabi language is written in several different scripts, of which theShahmukhi, theGurmukhī scripts are the most commonly used.[246]
Punjab is home to thePunjabi film industry, often colloquially referred to as 'Pollywood'.[252] It is known for being the fastest growing film industry in India. It is based mainly aroundMohali city. According to MPManish Tewari, the government is planning to build a film city in Mohali.[253]
The first Punjabi film was made in 1936. Since the 2000s Punjabi cinema has seen a revival with more releases every year with bigger budgets, homegrown stars, and Bollywood actors of Punjabi descent taking part.[citation needed]
Crafts
Punjabi women using a traditional method ofspinning
One of the main features of Punjabi cuisine is its diverse range of dishes.[257][258] Home cooked and restaurant cuisine sometimes vary in taste. Restaurant style uses large amounts ofghee. Some food items are eaten on a daily basis while some delicacies are cooked only on special occasions.[259]
Punjab Games and annualKabaddi World Cup for Circle Style Kabbadi in which teams from countries like Argentina, Canada, Denmark, England, India, Iran, Kenya, Pakistan, Scotland,Sierra Leone, Spain and United States participated. A majorC.B.S.E event C.B.S.E Cluster Athlectics also held in Punjab at Sant Baba Bhag Singh University.[271]
TheGolden Temple inAmritsar is one of the major tourist destinations of Punjab and indeed India, attracting more visitors than theTaj Mahal.Lonely Planet Bluelist 2008 has voted the Harmandir Sahib as one of the world's best spiritual sites.[276] Moreover, there is a rapidly expanding array of international hotels in the holy city at Heritage Walk Amritsar that can be booked for overnight stays.Devi Talab Mandir is aHindu temple located inJalandhar. This temple is devoted toGoddess Durga[277] and is believed to be at least 200 years old. Another main tourist destination is religious and historic city of SriAnandpur Sahib where large number of
^Michaels (2004, p. 38) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFMichaels2004 (help): "The legacy of the Vedic religion in Hinduism is generally overestimated. The influence of the mythology is indeed great, but the religious terminology changed considerably: all the key terms of Hinduism either do not exist in Vedic or have a completely different meaning. The religion of the Veda does not know the ethicised migration of the soul with retribution for acts (karma), the cyclical destruction of the world, or the idea of salvation during one's lifetime (jivanmukti; moksa; nirvana); the idea of the world as illusion (maya) must have gone against the grain of ancient India, and an omnipotent creator god emerges only in the late hymns of the Rigveda. Nor did the Vedic religion know a caste system, the burning of widows, the ban on remarriage, images of gods and temples, Puja worship, Yoga, pilgrimages, vegetarianism, the holiness of cows, the doctrine of stages of life (asrama), or knew them only at their inception. Thus, it is justified to see a turning point between the Vedic religion and Hindu religions." Jamison, Stephanie; Witzel, Michael (1992)."Vedic Hinduism"(PDF). Harvard University. p. 3.: "... to call this period Vedic Hinduism is a contradictio in terminis since Vedic religion is very different from what we generally call Hindu religion – at least as much as Old Hebrew religion is from medieval and modern Christian religion. However, Vedic religion is treatable as a predecessor of Hinduism." See alsoHalbfass 1991, pp. 1–2 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHalbfass1991 (help)
^"Appendix-A: Detailed tables, Table (7): Literacy rate (in per cent) of persons of different age groups for each State/UT (persons, age-group (years): 7 & above, rural+urban (column 6))".Annual Report, Periodic Labour Force Survey (PLFS) (July 2023 – June 2024)(PDF). National Sample Survey Office, Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, Government of India. 23 September 2024. pp. A-10.
^—Melton, J. G. (2014).Faiths Across Time: 5,000 Years of Religious History. ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-61069-026-3.[full citation needed] —Jestice, Phyllis (2004).Holy people of the world: a cross-cultural encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO.ISBN978-1-57607-355-1.OCLC57407318. —Latif, Syad Muhammad (1964).The History of Punjab from the Remotest Antiquity to the Present Time. Eurasia Publishing House. p. 283. —Bhatia, Sardar Singh (1998).The Encyclopedia of Sikhism, Volume IV. Punjabi University. p. 396.
^—Talbot, Ian (2009). "Partition of India: The Human Dimension".Cultural and Social History.6 (4):403–410.doi:10.2752/147800409X466254.S2CID147110854.The number of casualties remains a matter of dispute, with figures being claimed that range from 200,000 to 2 million victims —D'Costa, Bina (2011).Nationbuilding, Gender and War Crimes in South Asia. Routledge. p. 53.ISBN978-0415565660. —Butalia, Urvashi (2000).The Other Side of Silence: Voices From the Partition of India. Duke University Press.Archived from the original on 25 March 2016. Retrieved3 July 2020. —Sikand, Yoginder (2004).Muslims in India Since 1947: Islamic Perspectives on Inter-Faith Relations. Routledge. p. 5.ISBN978-1134378258. —"A heritage all but erased".The Friday Times. 25 December 2015.Archived from the original on 24 April 2022. Retrieved26 June 2017.
^Brass, Paul R. (2005).Language, Religion and Politics in North India. iUniverse. p. 326.ISBN978-0-595-34394-2.
^"Sub-national HDI – Area Database".Global Data Lab. Institute for Management Research, Radboud University.Archived from the original on 23 September 2018. Retrieved25 September 2018.
^Wheeler, James Talboys (1874).The History of India from the Earliest Ages: Hindu Buddhist Brahmanical revival. N. Trübner. p. 330.Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved30 September 2022.The Punjab, to say the least, was less Brahmanical. It was an ancient centre of the worship of Indra, who was always regarded as an enemy by the Bráhmans; and it was also a stronghold of Buddhism.
^Virdee, Pippa (February 2018).From the Ashes of 1947. Cambridge University Press. p. 24.ISBN978-1-108-42811-8.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved14 March 2023.The Rig Veda and the Upanishads, which belonged to the Vedic religion, were a precursor of Hinduism, both of which were composed in Punjab.
^abcdefghijBosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "The campaign of the Hydaspes".Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. pp. 125–130.
^Holt, Frank Lee (2003).Alexander the Great and the mystery of the elephant medallions. University of California Press.
^abBosworth, Albert Brian (1993). "From the Hydaspes to the Southern Ocean".Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press.
^Anson, Edward M. (2013).Alexander the Great: Themes and Issues. Bloomsbury. p. 151.ISBN9781441193797.
^Roy 2004, pp. 23–28. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoy2004 (help)
^Heckel, Waldemar (2006).Who's Who in the Age of Alexander the Great: Prosopography of Alexander's Empire. Wiley.ISBN9781405112109.
^Hazel, John (2013).Who's Who in the Greek World. Routledge. p. 155.ISBN9781134802241.Menander king in India, known locally as Milinda, born at a village named Kalasi near Alasanda (Alexandria-in-the-Caucasus), and who was himself the son of a king. After conquering the Punjab, where he made Sagala his capital, he made an expedition across northern India and visited Patna, the capital of the Mauraya empire, though he did not succeed in conquering this land as he appears to have been overtaken by wars on the north-west frontier with Eucratides.
^Ahir, D. C. (1971).Buddhism in the Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh. Maha Bodhi Society of India. p. 31.OCLC1288206.Demetrius died in 166 B.C., and Apollodotus, who was a near relation of the King died in 161 B.C. After his death, Menander carved out a kingdom in Punjab. Thus from 161 B.C. onward Menander was the ruler of Punjab till his death in 145 B.C. or 130 B.C.
^Rambo, Lewis R.; Farhadian, Charles E. (6 March 2014).The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversion. Oxford University Press. pp. 489–491.ISBN978-0-19-971354-7.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved11 August 2022.First, Islam was introduced into the southern Punjab in the opening decades of the eighth century. By the sixteenth century, Muslims were the majority in the region and an elaborate network of mosques and mausoleums marked the landscape. Local converts constituted the majority of this Muslim community, and as far for the mechanisms of conversion, the sources of the period emphasize the recitation of the Islamic confession of faith (shahada), the performance of the circumsicion (indri vaddani), and the ingestion of cow-meat (bhas khana).
^Singh, Pritam (2008).Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy. Abingdon-on-Thames, England:Routledge.ISBN978-1-134-04945-5.A large number of Hindu and Muslim peasants converted to Sikhism from conviction, fear, economic motives, or a combination of the three (Khushwant Singh 1999: 106; Ganda Singh 1935: 73).
^abPashaura Singh (2005), Understanding the Martyrdom of Guru Arjan, Journal of Punjab Studies, 12(1), pp. 29–62
^Fenech, Louis E. (2001). "Martyrdom and the Execution of Guru Arjan in Early Sikh Sources".Journal of the American Oriental Society.121 (1):20–31.doi:10.2307/606726.JSTOR606726.
^Fenech, Louis E. (1997). "Martyrdom and the Sikh Tradition".Journal of the American Oriental Society.117 (4):623–642.doi:10.2307/606445.JSTOR606445.
^Grewal, J. S. (1990). "6: The Sikh empire (1799–1849)".The Sikhs of the Punjab. The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press.ISBN0-521-63764-3.Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved11 August 2022.
^Amarinder Singh's The Last Sunset: The Rise and Fall of the Lahore Durbar
^Manning, Stephen (30 September 2020).Bayonet to Barrage Weaponry on the Victorian Battlefield. Pen & Sword Books Limited.ISBN9781526777249.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved19 March 2023.The Sikh kingdom expanded from Tibet in the east to Kashmir in the west and from Sind in the south to the Khyber Pass in the north, an area of 200,000 square miles
^Barczewski, Stephanie (22 March 2016).Heroic Failure and the British. Yale University Press. p. 89.ISBN9780300186819.Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved19 March 2023...the Sikh state encompassed over 200,000 square miles (518,000 sq km)
^abPritam Singh, Federalism, Nationalism and Development: India and the Punjab Economy, Routledge, 19 February 2008, p.54
^Tan, Tai Yong;Kudaisya, Gyanesh (2005) [First published in 2000].The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia. Routledge. p. 100.ISBN978-0-415-28908-5.Archived from the original on 28 January 2016.In March 1930 the All-India Muslim League passed its famous Lahore Resolution, demanding the creation of a separate state from Muslim majority areas in India ... [it] sparked off an enormous furore amongst the Sikhs in the Punjab ... the professed intention of the Muslim League to impose a Muslim state on the Punjab (a Muslim majority province) was anathema to the Sikhs ... Sikhs launched a virulent campaign against the Lahore Resolution.
^Srinivasulu, C.; Srinivasulu, Bhargavi (2012).South Asian mammals: their diversity, distribution, and status. New York, NY: Springer. p. 364.ISBN978-1-4614-3449-8.OCLC794056010.
^B. N. Pandey; G. K. Kulkarni, eds. (2006). "Biodiversity and environment".National Symposium on Recent Advances in Animal Research with Special Emphasis on Invertebrates. New Delhi: A P H Pub. Corp. p. 172.ISBN81-313-0042-0.OCLC297209812.
^Kumar, Ashutosh (2004). "Electoral Politics in Punjab: Study of Akali Dal".Economic and Political Weekly.39 (14/15):1515–1520.ISSN0012-9976.JSTOR4414869.
^Tripathi, Manoj (3 February 2017)."Punjab's Slowing Economy".Bw Businessworld. Business World.Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved2 July 2020.
^ab"Know Punjab". Government of Punjab, India.Archived from the original on 13 July 2021. Retrieved2 July 2020.
^Taylor, S., Singh, M., Booth, D. (2007) Migration, development and inequality: Eastern Punjabi transnationalism. School of Social Sciences and Law, University of Teesside, Middlesbrough, UK; Department of Sociology, Punjab University, Chandigarh, India.
^Pakistan almanac, Volumes 2001–2002. Royal Book Company. 2007.Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved3 November 2007.Bhangra refers to both a traditional dance and a form of music invented in the 1980s. Bhangra, the Punjabi folk dance that has become popular all over the world. Punjabi folk songs have been integral part of fertile provinces
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