| Total population | |
|---|---|
| c. 75,000[1] | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
| Southwestern United States | |
| Particularly:New Mexico andArizona | |
| Languages | |
| English,Spanish,Hopi,Tanoan languages,Keresan,Keresan Pueblo Sign Language,Zuni | |
| Religion | |
| Pueblo religion,Roman Catholicism,[2] minorityProtestantism |
ThePueblo peoples, orPuebloans, areNative Americans in theSouthwestern United States who share common agricultural, material, and religious practices. Among the currently inhabitedPueblos,Taos,San Ildefonso,Acoma,Zuni, andHopi are some of the most commonly known. Pueblo people speak languages from four differentlanguage families, and each Pueblo is further divided culturally bykinship systems and agricultural practices, although all cultivate varieties ofcorn (maize).
Pueblo peopleshave lived in the American Southwest for millennia and descend from theAncestral Puebloans.[3] The termAnasazi is sometimes used to refer to Ancestral Puebloan peoples, but it is considered derogatory and offensive. "Anasazi" is aNavajo adoption of aUte term that translates toAncient Enemy orPrimitive Enemy, but was used by them to mean something like "barbarian" or "savage", hence the modern Pueblo peoples' rejection of it (seeexonym).[4]
Pueblo is a Spanish term for "village". WhenSpanish conquest of the Americas began in the 16th century with the founding ofNuevo México, they came across complex, multistory villages built ofadobe, stone and other local materials.New Mexico contains the largest number of federally recognized Pueblo communities, though some Pueblo communities also live inArizona andTexas and along theRio Grande andColorado rivers and theirtributaries.
Pueblo nations have maintained much of their traditional cultures, which center around agricultural practices, a tight-knit community revolving around family clans, and respect for tradition. Pueblo people have been remarkably adept at preserving their culture and core religious beliefs, including developingsyncretic Pueblo Christianity.[5] Exact numbers of Pueblo peoples are unknown but, in the 21st century, some 75,000 Pueblo people live predominantly in New Mexico and Arizona, but also in Texas and elsewhere.[1]
Despite various similarities in cultural and religious practices, scholars have proposed divisions of contemporary Pueblos into smaller groups based on linguistic and individual manifestations of the broader Pueblo culture.
Pueblo peoples speak languages from four distinctlanguage families, which means these languages are completely different invocabulary,grammar, and most other linguistic aspects. As a result, each Pueblo language is not easily understood by speakers of the other languages, with English now working as thelingua franca of the region.
Anthropologists have studied Pueblo peoples extensively and published various classifications of their subdivisions. In 1950,Fred Russell Eggan contrasted the peoples of the Eastern and Western Pueblos, based largely on their subsistence farming techniques.[8] The Western or Desert Pueblos of the Zuni and Hopi specialize indry farming, compared to theirrigation farmers of the Eastern or River Pueblos. Both groups cultivate mostly corn (maize), but squash and beans have also been staple Pueblo foods all around the region.
In 1954,Paul Kirchhoff published a division of Pueblo peoples into two groups based on culture.[9] TheHopi,Zuni,Keres andJemez each havematrilineal kinship systems: children are considered born into their mother's clan and must marry a spouse outside it, anexogamous practice. They maintain multiplekivas for sacred ceremonies. Theircreation story tells that humans emerged from the underground. They emphasize four or six cardinal directions as part of their sacred cosmology, beginning in the north. Four and seven are numbers considered significant in their rituals and symbolism.[9] In contrast, theTanoan-speaking Pueblos (other than Jemez) have a patrilineal kinship system, with children considered born into their father's clan. They practiceendogamy, or marriage within the clan. They have two kivas or two groups of kivas in their pueblos. Their belief system is based indualism. Their creation story recounts the emergence of people from underwater. They use five directions, beginning in the west. Their ritual numbers are based on multiples of three.[9]
Puebloan societies contain elements of three major cultures that dominated the Southwest United States region before European contact: theMogollon culture, whose adherents occupied an area nearGila Wilderness; theHohokam culture; and theAncestral Pueblo culture who occupied theChaco Canyon andMesa Verde regions of theFour Corners area.[10][11]
Archeological evidence suggests that people partaking in the Mogollon culture were initiallyforagers who augmented their subsistence through the development of farming. Around the first millennium CE farming became the main means to obtain food.Water control features are common among Mimbres branch sites which date from the 10th through 12th centuries CE. The nature and density of Mogollon residential villages changed through time; the earliest Mogollon villages were smallhamlets composed of severalpithouses, houses excavated into the ground surface with a stick and thatch roofs supported by a network of posts and beams, and faced on the exterior with earth. Village sizes increased over time so that by the 11th century CE villages composed of ground level dwellings of rock and earth walls and wooden beam-supported roofs were the norm.Cliff-dwellings became common during the 13th and 14th centuries.
Hohokam is a term borrowed from theO'odham language, used to define an archaeological culture that relied on irrigation canals to water their crops since as early as the 9th century CE. Their irrigation system techniques allowed for its adherents to expand into the largest population in the Southwest by 1300. Archaeologists working at a major archaeological dig in the 1990s in theTucson Basin, along theSanta Cruz River, identified a culture and people that were ancestors of the Hohokam who might have occupied southern Arizona as early as 2000 BCE. This prehistoric group from the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year-round in sedentary villages, and developed sophisticated irrigation canals from the beginning of the common era to about the middle of the 15th century. Within a larger context, the Hohokam culture area inhabited a central trade position between thePatayan situated along with the LowerColorado River and in southern California; theTrincheras ofSonora, Mexico; theMogollon culture in eastern Arizona, southwest New Mexico, and northwestChihuahua, Mexico; and theAncestral Puebloans in northern Arizona, northern New Mexico, southwest Colorado, and southernUtah.
TheAncestral Puebloan culture is known for the stone and earth dwellings its people built along cliff walls, particularly during thePueblo II andPueblo III eras, from about 900 to 1350 CE in total. The best-preserved examples of the stone dwellings are now protected within United States'national parks, such asNavajo National Monument,Chaco Culture National Historical Park,Mesa Verde National Park,Canyons of the Ancients National Monument,Aztec Ruins National Monument,Bandelier National Monument,Hovenweep National Monument, andCanyon de Chelly National Monument. These villages were accessible only by rope or through rock climbing. However, the first Ancestral Puebloan homes and villages were based on the pit-house, a common feature in theBasketmaker periods. Villages consisted of apartment-like complexes and structures made from stone, adobe mud, and other local materials, or were carved into the sides ofcanyon walls. Design details from Ancestral Puebloan villages contain elements from cultures as far away as present-day Mexico. In their day, these ancient towns and cities were usually multistoried and multi-purposed buildings surrounding openplazas andviewsheds. They were occupied by hundreds to thousands of Ancestral Pueblo peoples. These population complexes hosted cultural and civic events and infrastructure that supported a vast outlying region hundreds of miles away linked by transportation roadways.
By about 700 to 900 CE, Pueblo people began to move away from ancient pit houses dug in cliffs and to construct connected rectangular rooms arranged in apartment-like structures made of adobe and adapted to sites. By 1050, they had developed planned villages composed of large terraced buildings, each with many rooms. These apartment-house villages were often constructed on defensive sites: on ledges of massive rock, on flat summits, or on steep-sided mesas, locations that would afford Pueblo people protection from raiding parties originating from the north, such as theComanche andNavajo. The largest of these villages,Pueblo Bonito inChaco Canyon, New Mexico, contained around 700 rooms in five stories; it may have housed as many as 1000 persons.[12] Pueblo buildings are constructed as complex apartments with numerous rooms, often built in strategic defensive positions. The most highly developed were large villages or pueblos situated at the very top of themesas, the rocky tablelands typical to the Southwest.
Before 1598, Spanish exploration of the present-day Pueblo areas was limited to several transitory groups. A group of colonizers led byJuan de Oñate arrived at the end of the 16th century as part of an apostolic mission to convert the Natives. Despite initial peaceful contact, Spain's attempts to dispose of the Pueblo religion and replace it with Catholicism became increasingly more aggressive, and were met with great resistance by Pueblo peoples, whose governmental structure was based around the figure of thecacique, atheocratic leader for both material and spiritual matters.[5] Over the years, Spaniards' methods grew harsher, leading to a series of revolts by Pueblo peoples.
ThePueblo Revolt that started in 1680 was the first led by a Native American group to successfully expel colonists from North America for a considerable number of years. It followed the successfulTiguex War led by Tiwas against theCoronado Expedition in 1540–41, which temporarily halted Spanish advances in present-day New Mexico. The 17th century's revolt was a direct consequence of growing discontent among the Northern Pueblos against the abuses by the Spaniards, which finally brewed into a large organized uprising against European colonizers.
The events that led to the Pueblo Revolt go back at least a decade before the formal uprising began. In the 1670s, severe drought swept the region, which caused both a famine among the Pueblo and increased the frequency of raids by theApache. Neither Spanish nor Pueblo soldiers were able to prevent the attacks by the Apache raiding parties.
The unrest among the Pueblos came to a head in 1675, when GovernorJuan Francisco Treviño ordered the arrest of forty-seven Pueblomedicine men and accused them of practicingsorcery. Four of the medicine men were sentenced to death by hanging; three of those sentences were carried out, while the fourth prisoner committed suicide. The remaining men were publicly whipped and sentenced to prison. When the news of the killings and public humiliation reached Pueblo leaders, they moved in force toSanta Fe, where the prisoners were held. Because a large number of Spanish soldiers were away fighting the Apache, Governor Treviño was forced to release the prisoners. Among those released was anOhkay Owingeh Tewa man namedPopé. After being released, Popé took up residence inTaos Pueblo far from the capital of Santa Fe and spent the next five years seeking support for a revolt among the 46 Pueblo villages. He was able to gain the support of the NorthernTiwa,Tewa,Towa,Tano, andKeres-speaking Pueblos of the Rio Grande Valley. ThePecos Pueblo, 50 miles east of the Rio Grande pledged its participation in the revolt as did theZuni andHopi, 120 and 200 miles respectively west of the Rio Grande. At the time, the Spanish population was of about 2,400 colonists, including mixed-bloodmestizos, and Indian servants and retainers, who were scattered thinly throughout the region. Starting early on 10 August 1680, Popé and leaders of each of the Pueblos sent a knotted rope carried by a runner to the next Pueblo; the number of knots signified the number of days to wait before beginning the uprising. Finally, on 21 August, 2,500 Puebloan warriors took the colony's capitalSanta Fe from Spanish control, killing many colonizers, the remainder of whom were successfully expelled.[13]
On 22 September 2005, the statue of Po'pay (Popé), the leader of the Pueblo Revolt, was unveiled in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C. The statue was the second commissioned by the state of New Mexico for theNational Statuary Hall Collection; it was the 100th and last to be added to the collection. It was created byCliff Fragua,Jemez Pueblo sculptor. It is the only statue in the collection to be created by a Native American.[14]
In 1844Josiah Gregg described the historic Pueblo people inThe journal of a Santa Fé trader as follows:[15]
When these regions were first discovered it appears that the inhabitants lived in comfortable houses and cultivated the soil, as they have continued to do up to the present time. Indeed, they are now considered the best horticulturists in the country, furnishing most of the fruits and a large portion of the vegetable supplies that are to be found in the markets. They were until very lately the only people in New Mexico who cultivated the grape. They also maintain at the present time considerable herds of cattle, horses, etc. They are, in short, a remarkably sober and industrious race, conspicuous for morality and honesty, and very little given to quarreling or dissipation ...
Pueblo people have woven cloth and used twined and embroidered textiles,natural fibers, andanimal hide in their cloth-making. Since woven clothing is laborious and time-consuming, everyday clothing for working around the villages was sparer. The men often wore breechcloths.
Corn is a primarystaple food for Pueblo peoples. Although it is possible that different groups may have grown local plants such asgourds andchenopods at very early dates, the first evidence of maize cultivation in the Southwest dates from about 2100 BCE. Small, fairly undomesticated maize cobs have been found at five different sites in New Mexico and Arizona.[16]
Maize reached the present-day Southwest via an unknown route fromMesoamerica (i.e., present-day Mexico) and was rapidly adopted by peoples in the region. One theory states that maize cultivation was carried northward from central Mexico by migrating farmers, most likely speakers of aUto-Aztecan language. Another theory, more accepted among scholars, is that between 4300 BCE and 2100 BCE maize was diffused northward from group to group rather than by migrants. There is evidence that maize was initially cultivated in the Southwest during aclimatic period whenprecipitation was relatively high.[16]
The various Pueblo communities have different traditions regarding the making and decoration of pottery artifacts. Present-day archaeologists date Pueblo pottery back the early centuries of the Common Era.[17]
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In many Southwest Native communities' belief systems, thearchetypaldeities appear as visionary beings who bring blessings and receive love. A vast collection of religious stories explore the relationships among people and nature, including plants and animals.Spider Grandmother andkachina spirits figure prominently in some myths.
Pueblo peoples in the 16th century believed in Katsina spirits. Katsinas are supernatural beings who are representatives of Pueblo ancestors. They live for half the year in the underworld with the gods and spend the rest of the year with their descendants on earth. Katsinas have the power to take the form of clouds and bring rain for agricultural fields. They heal disease and also cause disease.[18]
Pueblo prayer included substances as well as words; one common prayer material was ground-up maize – whitecornmeal. A man might bless his son, or some land, or the town by sprinkling a handful of meal as he uttered a blessing. After the 1692 re-conquest, the Spanish were prevented from entering one town when they were met by a handful of men who uttered imprecations and cast a single pinch of a sacred substance.[19]
The Pueblo peoples used ritual 'prayer sticks', which were colorfully decorated with beads, fur, and feathers. These prayer sticks (or 'talking sticks') were similar to those used by other Native American nations. By the 13th century, Pueblo people crafted turkey feather blankets for warmth.[20]
Most of the Pueblos hold annual sacred ceremonies, some of which are now open to the public.
Religious ceremonies usually feature traditional dances that are held outdoors in the large common areas and courtyards, which are accompanied by singing and drumming. Unlike kiva ceremonies, traditional dances may be open to non-Pueblo people. Traditional dances are considered a form of prayer, and strict rules of conduct apply to those who wish to attend one (e.g. no clapping or walking across the dance area or between the dancers, singers, or drummers).[21]
Since time immemorial, Pueblo communities have celebrated seasonal cycles through prayer, song, and dance. These dances connect us to our ancestors, community, and traditions while honoring gifts from our Creator. They ensure that life continues and that connections to the past and future are reinforced.[22]
Traditionally, all outside visitors to a public dance would be offered a meal afterward in a Pueblo home. Because of the numerous outside tourists who have attended these dances in the pueblos since the late 20th century, such meals are now open to outsiders by personal invitation only. Private sacred ceremonies are conducted inside thekivas and only tribal members may participate according to specific rules pertaining to each Pueblo's religion.One of the primary goals of Spanish colonists in the 17th century was to convert the Natives in New Spain to Christianity. Franciscan priests had prepared for a long process of conversion, building churches and missions all around Pueblo country. Some of the Pueblos' feast days are a product of that process. Feast days are held on the day sacred to itsRoman Catholicpatron saint, assigned by Spanish missionaries so that each Pueblo's feast day would coincide with one of the people's existing traditional ceremonies. About the imposition of Christianity,Alfonso Ortiz, an Ohkay Owingeh anthropologist and Pueblo specialist states:
The Spanish government demanded labor and tribute from the Pueblos and vigorously attempted to suppress native religion. (...) In that year [1692]Diego de Vargas re-entered Pueblo territory, though it was not until 1696 that he gained control over the entire Rio Grande Pueblo area. The Spaniards had learned from the Pueblo Revolt and were gentler in their demands in the next century and a half. However, the Pueblos had learned as well and maintained their ceremonial life out of the view of the Spaniards, while adopting a veneer of Roman Catholicism.[23]
The public observances may also include a Roman CatholicMass and processions on the Pueblo's feast day. Some Pueblos also hold sacred ceremonies around Christmas and at other Christian holidays.
Although most present-day pueblos are known by their Spanish or anglicized Spanish name, each Pueblo has a unique name in each of the different languages spoken in the area. The names used by each Pueblo to refer to their village (endonyms) usually differ from those given to them by outsiders (theirexonyms), including by speakers of other Puebloan languages. Centuries of trade and intermarriages between the groups are reflected in the names given to the same Pueblo in each of the languages. The table below contains the names of the New Mexican pueblos and Hopi using the official or practical orthographies of the languages. Despite not being a Puebloan language,Navajo names are also included due to prolonged contact between them and the several Pueblos.
| English/Spanish Name | Endonym[10] | Navajo[29] | Keres[10][30] | Tewa[10][6] | Tiwa[10][6][a] | Towa[6][31] | Hopi[32] | Zuni[10] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acoma | Áakʼu | Haakʼoh | endonym | Téwigeh Ówîngeh | Tʼoławei | Totyagiʼi | Ákookavi | Haku: |
| Cochiti | Kúutyì | Tǫ́ʼgaaʼ | Kʼuuteʼgeh Ówîngeh | Kotəava | Kyʼǽǽtɨɨgiʼi | Kwitsi | Kochudi | |
| Laguna | Kʼáwáiga | Tó Łání | Kʼuʼkwʼáage Ówîngeh | Powhiaba | Kyʼóóweʼegiʼi | Kawaikaʼa | Kʼyanałana | |
| San Felipe | Kaatishtya | Tsédáá'kin | Nąnwheve Ówîngeh | Pʼatəak | Kwilegiʼi | Katistsa | Wepłabattsʼi | |
| Santa Ana | Dámáyá | Dahmi | Shadegeh Ówîngeh | Patuthaa | Tɨ̨́dægiʼi | Tamaya | Damaiya | |
| Kewa/Santo Domingo | Kewa/ Díiwi | Tó Hájiiloh | Taywheve Ówîngeh | Tuwita | Tǽwigiʼi | Tuuwíʼi | Wehkʼyana | |
| Zia | Tsíiyʼa | Tłʼógí | Sia Ówîngeh | Təanąbak | Sæyakwa | Tsiyaʼ | Tsia'a | |
| Nambé | Nąngbeʼe Ôwîngeh | (Not Available) | Nomɨʼɨ | endonym | Nammuluva | Pashiukwa | Tuukwiveʼ Tewa | (Not Available) |
| Pojoaque | Pʼohsųwæ̨geh Ówîngeh | (Not Available) | Pʼohwakedze | Asʼonaʼ | (Not Available) | (Not Available) | (Not Available) | |
| San Ildefonso | Pʼohwhogeh Ówîngeh | Tsétaʼ Kin | Pʼakwede | Pʼahwiaʼhliap | Pʼææshogiʼi | Suustapna Tewa | Dawsa | |
| Ohkay Owingeh/San Juan | Ohkwee Ówîngeh | Kin Łichíí' | (Not Available) | Pʼakapʼalʼayą | (Not Available) | Yuupaqa Tewa | (Not Available) | |
| Santa Clara | Khaʼpʼoe Ówîngeh | Naashashí | Kaipʼa | Haipaai | Shǽǽpʼæægiʼi | Nasaveʼ Tewa | (Not Available) | |
| Tesuque | Tetsʼúgéh Ówîngeh | Tłʼoh Łikizhí | Tyutsuko | Tutsʼuiba | Tsota | Tuukwiveʼ Tewa | (Not Available) | |
| Isleta | Shiewhibak/ Tsugwevaga | Naatoohó | Dyîiwʼaʼane | Tsiiwheve Ówîngeh | endonym | Téwaagiʼi | Tsiyawipi | Kʼya:shhida |
| Picuris | Pʼįwweltha / Pe'ewi | Tókʼelé | Pikuli | Pʼįnwêê Ówîngeh | Pʼêêkwele | (Not Available) | (Not Available) | |
| Sandia | Ną'piʼąd | Kin Łigaaí | Waashuutsi | Pʼotsą́nûû Ówîngeh | Sądéyagiʼi | Payúpki | We:łuwalʼa | |
| Taos | Təotho | Tówoł | Dâusá | Pʼįnsô Ówîngeh | Yɨ́láta | Kwapihalu | Dopoliana | |
| Jemez | Wâlatɨɨwa | Maʼii Deeshgiizh | Héemʼishiitsi | Wą́ngé Ówîngeh | Híemma | endonym | Hemisi | He:mu:shi |
| Hopi | Móókwi/ Hópi | Ayahkiní | Mùutsi | Khosóʼon | Bukhiek | Hɨ́pé | endonym | Mu:kwi |
| Zuni | Shiwinna | Naashtʼézhí | Sɨ́ɨníitsi | Sųyų | Sunyiʼina | Sɨnigiʼi | Síʼooki | endonym |
| Navajo People | Diné | endonym | Tene | Wǽn Sávo | T'ełiém | Kyʼǽlǽtoosh | Tasavu | A:Machu |
With the exception of Zuni, all Puebloan languages, as well as Navajo, aretonal. However, the tone is not usually shown in the spelling of these languages save for Navajo, Towa, and Tewa. In the table above, a low tone is left unmarked in the orthography.Vowel nasalisation is shown by anogonek diacritic below the vowel;ejective consonants are transcribed with anapostrophe following the consonant.Vowel length is shown either by doubling of the character or, in Zuni, by adding a colon.
Precontact population size of the Pueblo peoples was possibly as high as up to 313,000 people spread across at least 110 pueblos, according to authors and sources such asAntonio de Espejo,Alonso de Benavides, Relacion del Suceso andAgustín de Vetancurt.[33][34] By the year 1907 the Puebloan population had been decimated to just over 11,300 individuals, according toJames Mooney. However, from the 20th century up to the present day, their population has been rebounding. As of 2020, they numbered 78,884 in the USA, 52,369 of whom lived in New Mexico.[35]
