The book is ananthology ofHebrew religioushymns. In theJewish andWestern Christian traditions, there are 150 psalms, and several more in theEastern Christian churches.[3][4] The book is divided into five sections, each ending with adoxology, a hymn of praise. There are several types of psalms, including hymns or songs of praise, communal and individual laments,royal psalms,imprecation, and individual thanksgivings. The book also includes psalms of communal thanksgiving, wisdom, pilgrimage and other categories.
Many of the psalms contain attributions to the name ofKing David and other Biblical figures includingAsaph, thesons of Korah, Moses andSolomon. Davidic authorship of the Psalms is not accepted as historical fact by modern scholars, who view it as a way to link biblical writings to well-known figures; while the dating of the Psalms is “notoriously difficult,” some are considered preexilic and others postexilic.[4] TheDead Sea Scrolls suggest that the ordering and content of the later psalms (Psalms 90-150) was not fixed in the mid-1st century AD.[5][6] Septuagint scholars, includingEugene Ulrich, have argued that the Hebrew Psalter was not closed until thefirst century CE.[7][8]
In English, the title of the book is derived from theGreek wordψαλμοί (psalmoi), meaning 'instrumental music' and, by extension, 'the words accompanying the music'.[9] The Hebrew name of the book,Tehillim (תהילים), means 'praises', as it contains many praises and supplications to God.
The Book of Psalms is divided into five sections, each closing with adoxology (i.e., abenediction). These divisions were probably introduced by the final editors to imitate the five-fold division of theTorah:[10]
Many psalms (116 of the 150) have individual superscriptions (titles), ranging from lengthy comments to a single word. Over a third appear to be musical directions, addressed to the "leader" or "choirmaster", including such statements as "with stringed instruments" and "according to lilies". Others appear to be references to types of musical composition, such as "A psalm" and "Song", or regarding the occasion of the psalm ("On the dedication of the temple", "For the memorial offering", etc.). Many carry the names of individuals, the most common (73 psalms) being 'of David', and thirteen of these relate explicitly to incidents in the king's life.[11] Others named includeAsaph (12), thesons of Korah (11),Solomon (2),Moses (1),Ethan the Ezrahite (1), andHeman the Ezrahite (1). TheSeptuagint, thePeshitta (the Syriac Vulgate), and theLatin Vulgate each associate several Psalms (such as111 and145) withHaggai andZechariah. The Septuagint also attributes several Psalms (like112 and135) toEzekiel andJeremiah.
Psalms are usually identified by a sequence number, often preceded by the abbreviation "Ps." Numbering of the Psalms differs—mostly by one—between the Hebrew (Masoretic) and Greek (Septuagint) manuscripts.Protestant translations (Lutheran,Anglican,Calvinist) use the Hebrew numbering, but other Christian traditions vary:
The variance betweenMasorah and Septuagint texts in this numeration is likely enough due to a gradual neglect of the original poetic form of the Psalms; such neglect was occasioned by liturgical uses and carelessness of copyists. It is generally admitted that Psalms 9 and 10 (Hebrew numbering) were originally a single acrostic poem, wrongly separated by Massorah and rightly united by the Septuagint and the Vulgate.[13] Psalms 42 and 43 (Hebrew numbering) are shown by identity of subject (yearning for the house of Yahweh), of metrical structure and of refrain (comparing Psalms 42:6, 12; 43:5, Hebrew numbering), to be threestrophes of one and the same poem. The Hebrew text is correct in counting as one Psalm 146 and Psalm 147. Later liturgical usage would seem to have split up these and several other psalms. Zenner combines into what he deems were the original choral odes: Psalms 1, 2, 3, 4; 6 + 13; 9 + 10; 19, 20, 21; 56 + 57; 69 + 70; 114 + 115; 148, 149, 150.[14] A choral ode would seem to have been the original form of Psalms 14 and 70. The two strophes and theepode are Psalm 14; the two antistrophes are Psalm 70.[15] It is noteworthy that, on the breaking up of the original ode, each portion crept twice into the Psalter: Psalm 14 = 53, Psalm 70 = 40:14–18. Other such duplicated portions of psalms are Psalm 108:2–6 = Psalm 57:8–12; Psalm 108:7–14 = Psalm 60:7–14; Psalm 71:1–3 = Psalm 31:2–4. This loss of the original form of some of the psalms is considered by the Catholic Church'sPontifical Biblical Commission (1 May 1910) to have been due to liturgical practices, neglect by copyists, or other causes.[16]
Verse numbers were first printed in 1509.[17][18] Different traditions exist whether to include the original heading into the counting or not. This leads to inconsistent numbering in 62 psalms, with an offset of 1, sometimes even 2 verses.[19]
The Septuagint, present in Eastern Orthodox churches, includes aPsalm 151; a Hebrew version of this was found in thePsalms Scroll of theDead Sea Scrolls. Some versions of thePeshitta (the Bible used inSyriac churches mainly in the Middle East) includePsalms 152–155. There are also thePsalms of Solomon, which are a further 18 psalms of Jewish origin, likely originally written in Hebrew, but surviving only in Greek andSyriac translation. These and other indications suggest that the current Western Christian and Jewish collection of 150 psalms were selected from a wider set.
Hermann Gunkel's pioneering form-critical work on the psalms sought to provide a new and meaningful context in which to interpret individual psalms—not by looking at their literary context within the Psalter (which he did not see as significant), but by bringing together psalms of the samegenre (Gattung) from throughout the Psalter. Gunkel divided the psalms into five primary types:
Hymns are songs of praise for God's work in creation or history. They typically open with a call to praise, describe the motivation for praise, and conclude with a repetition of the call. Two sub-categories are "enthronement psalms", celebrating the enthronement ofYahweh as king, and Zion psalms, glorifying MountZion, God's dwelling-place in Jerusalem.[20] Gunkel also described a special subset of "eschatological hymns" which includes themes of future restoration (Psalm 126) or of judgment (Psalm 82).[21]
Communal laments are psalms in which the nation laments some communal disaster.[22] Both communal and individual laments typically but not always include the following elements:
In general, the individual and communal subtypes can be distinguished by the use of the singular "I" or the plural "we". However, the "I" could also be characterising an individual's personal experience that was reflective of the entire community.[25]
Royal psalms deal with such matters as the king's coronation, marriage and battles.[22] None of them mentions any specific king by name, and their origin and use remain obscure;[26] several psalms, especially Psalms 93–99, concern the kingship of God, and might relate to an annual ceremony in which Yahweh would be ritually reinstated as king.[27]
Individual laments are psalms lamenting the fate of the psalmist. By far the most common type of psalm, they typically open with an invocation of God, followed by the lament itself and pleas for help, and often ending with an expression of confidence.[22]
The composition of the psalms spans at least five centuries, from the 10th-centuryPsalm 29 to others clearly from thepost-Exilic period (i.e., not earlier than the fifth century BC). The majority originated in the southernkingdom of Judah and were associated with theTemple in Jerusalem, where they probably functioned aslibrettos during Templeworship. Exactly how they did so was unclear, but there are indications in some of them: "Bind the festal procession with branches, up to the horns of the altar"[30] suggests a connection with sacrifices, and "Let my prayer be set forth before you as incense"[31] suggests a connection with the offering of incense.[3]
Some of the psalms show influences from related earlier texts from the region; examples include variousUgaritic texts and the BabylonianEnūma Eliš. These influences may be either of background similarity or of contrast. For example,Psalm 29 shares characteristics with Canaanite religious poetry and themes.Robert Alter points out that the address to "sons of God" at the opening "[is] best thought of [as] the flickering literary afterlife of a polytheistic mythology" but that "belief in them...is unlikely to have been shared by the scribal circles that producedPsalms".[35] The contrast between the Psalmist's theology and the surrounding area's polytheistic religion is well seen in Psalms 104:26,[36] in which locals' mythical fierce sea-god—such as the BabylonianTiamat, CanaaniteYam and theLeviathan which also appears in the Hebrew Bible—is "reduced to an aquatic pet with whomYHWH can play".[37]
Thebiblical poetry of Psalms usesparallelism as its primary poetic device. Parallelism is a kind ofsymmetry in which restatement, synonym, amplification, grammatical repetition, or opposition develops an idea.[38][39] Synonymous parallelism involves two lines expressing essentially the same idea. An example of synonymous parallelism:
"The LORD is my light and my salvation; whom shall I fear? The LORD is the stronghold of my life; of whom shall I be afraid?" (Psalm 27:1).
Two lines expressing opposites is known asantithetic parallelism. An example of antithetic parallelism:
"And he led them in a cloud by day/ and all the night by a fiery light" (Psalm 78:14).
Two clauses expressing the idea of amplifying the first claim is known as expansive parallelism. An example of expansive parallelism:
"My mouth is filled with your praise/ all the day with your lauding" (Psalm 71:8).
Psalm 11 in the ninth-centuryUtrecht Psalter, where the illustration of the text is often literal.
Many scholars believe the individual Psalms were redacted into a single collection during theSecond Temple period.[40] It had long been recognized that the collection bore the imprint of an underlying message ormetanarrative, but that this message remained concealed, asAugustine of Hippo said, "The sequence of the Psalms seems to me to contain the secret of a mighty mystery, but its meaning has not been revealed to me" (Enarr. on Psalms 150:1). Others pointed out the presence of concatenation—that is, adjacent Psalms sharing similar words and themes. In time, this approach developed into recognizing overarching themes shared by whole groups of psalms.[41]
In 1985,Gerald H. Wilson'sThe Editing of the Hebrew Psalter proposed—by parallel with other ancient Near Eastern hymn collections—that psalms at the beginning and end (or "seams") of the five books of Psalms have thematic significance, corresponding in particular with the placement of the royal psalms. He pointed out that there was a progression of ideas from adversity through the crux of the collection in the apparent failure of thecovenant in Psalm 89, leading to a concert of praise at the end. He concluded that the collection was redacted to be a retrospective of the failure of theDavidic covenant, exhorting Israel to trust in God alone in a non-messianic future.[42]Walter Brueggemann suggested that the underlying editorial purpose was oriented instead towards wisdom or sapiential concerns, addressing the issues of how to live the life of faith. Psalm 1 calls the reader to a life of obedience; Psalm 73 (Brueggemann's crux psalm) faces the crisis when divine faithfulness is in doubt; Psalm 150 represents faith's triumph when God is praised not for his rewards but for his being.[43] In 1997, David. C. Mitchell'sThe Message of the Psalter took a quite different line. Building on the work of Wilson and others,[44] Mitchell proposed that the Psalter embodies an eschatological timetable like that ofZechariah 9–14.[45] This programme includes theingathering of exiled Israel by a bridegroom-king; his establishment of a kingdom; his violent death; Israel scattered in the wilderness, regathered and again imperiled, and then rescued by a king from the heavens, who establishes his kingdom from Zion, brings peace and prosperity to the earth and receives the homage of the nations.
These three views—Wilson's non-messianic retrospective of the Davidic covenant, Brueggemann's sapiential instruction, and Mitchell's eschatological-messianic program—all have their followers. However, the sapiential agenda has been somewhat eclipsed by the other two. Shortly before he died in 2005, Wilson modified his position to allow for the existence of messianic prophecy within the Psalms' redactional agenda.[46] Mitchell's position remains essentially unchanged, but he now sees the issue as identifying when the historical beginning of the Psalms turns to eschatology.[47]
James VanderKam’sThe Dead Sea Scrolls Today examined the large Psalms scroll fromQumran,11QPs(a), showing that while the first three books (Psalms 1-89) were largely fixed by the early1st century BC, Psalms 90-150 show variations in ordering and content, suggesting the collection was still being finalized into the mid-1st century AD and included material not found in the laterMasoretic Text.[5]Peter Flint argues that the findings show there were three different versions of the Psalter circulating during the Second Temple period, with the Masoretic version being attested among the scrolls found atMasada.[48]
The Psalms were written not merely as poems, but as songs for singing. According to Bible exegeteSaadia Gaon (882–942) who served in thegeonate of Babylonian Jewry, the Psalms were originally sung in theTemple precincts by theLevites, based on what was prescribed for each psalm (lineage of the singers, designated time and place, instruments used, manner of execution, etc.), but are permitted to be randomly read by anyone at any time and in any place.[49] More than a third of the psalms are addressed to the Director of Music. Some psalms exhort the worshipper to sing (e.g. Pss. 33:1-3; 92:1-3; 96:1-3; 98:1; 101:1; 150). Some headings denote the musical instruments on which the psalm should be played (Pss. 4, 5, 6, 8, 67). Some refer to the Levites who sang one of eight melodies, one of which was known simply as "the eighth" (Hebrew:sheminit) (Pss. 6, 12).[50] And others preserve the name for ancient eastern modes, likeayelet ha-shachar (hind of the dawn; Ps. 22);shoshanim /shushan (lilies /lily; Pss. 45; 60), said to be describing a certain melody;[51] or ʻalmuth /ʻalamoth (mute;[52] Pss. 9, 46), which, according to Saadia Gaon, is "a silent melody, nearly inaudible."[53]
Despite the frequently heard view that their ancient music is lost, the means to reconstruct it are still extant. Fragments of temple psalmody are preserved in ancient synagogue and church chant, particularly in thetonus peregrinus melody to Psalm 114.[54] Cantillation signs, to record the melody sung, were in use since ancient times; evidence of them can be found in the manuscripts of the oldest extant copies of Psalms in theDead Sea Scrolls and are even more extensive in theMasoretic text, which dates to theEarly Middle Ages and whose Tiberian scribes claimed to be basing their work on temple-period signs. (See Moshe ben Asher's 'Song of the Vine' colophon to the Codex Cairensis).[55]
Several attempts have been made to decode the Masoretic cantillation, but the most "successful" is that ofSuzanne Haïk-Vantoura (1928–2000) in the last quarter of the 20th century.[56] Her reconstruction assumes the signs represent the degrees of various musical scales – that is, individual notes – which puts it at odds with all other existing traditions, where the signs invariably represent melodic motifs; it also takes no account of the existence of older systems of notation, such as theBabylonian andPalestinian systems. Musicologists have therefore rejected Haïk-Vantoura's theories, with her results dubious, and her methodology flawed.[57] In spite of this, Mitchell has repeatedly defended it, showing that, when applied to the Masoretic cantillation of Psalm 114, it produces a melody recognizable as thetonus peregrinus of church and synagogue.[58] Mitchell includes musical transcriptions of the temple psalmody of Psalms 120–134 in his commentary on the Songs of Ascents.
In "The Flow of the Psalms," O. Palmer Robertson posits a thematic progression throughout the five books of Psalms, delineating distinctive characteristics and emphases:[59]
Book 1: Opposition – Predominantly attributed to David, these Psalms are perceived as the earliest in origin, characterized by a focus on trust in God, with Yahweh as the dominant name.
Book 2: Communication – Despite continued opposition, this book reflects an outreach even to enemies of God. The prevalent name for God shifts to Elohim, especially when borrowing sections from Book 1. Robertson suggests Book 2 may have Northern Kingdom origins.
Book 3: Devastation – Marked by the overtaking of Jerusalem, this book holds out hope for Jacob and Joseph, possibly symbolizing the Southern and Northern kingdoms. Expressions like "trust in God" diminish.
Book 4: Maturity – Notably, with over 10 quotes fromChronicles, indicating a temporal progression beyond the initial three books.
Book 5: Consummation – Robertson proposes that the Psalms of Ascent and Hallel Psalms are post-Babylonian exile compositions, portraying a culmination of themes and perspectives
Most individual psalms involve the praise of God for his power and beneficence, for his creation of the world, and for his past acts of deliverance for Israel. They envision a world in which everyone and everything will praise God, and God in turn will hear their prayers and respond. Sometimes God "hides his face" and refuses to respond, questioning (for the psalmist)the relationship between God and prayer which is the underlying assumption of the Book of Psalms.[60]
Some psalms are called "maskil" (maschil), meaning "enlightened" or "wise saying", because they impart wisdom. Most notable of these is Psalm 142 which is sometimes called the "Maskil of David"; others include Psalm 32 and Psalm 78.[61]
A special grouping and division in the Book of Psalms are fifteen psalms (Psalms 120–134) known in the construct case,shir ha-ma'aloth ("A Song of Ascents", "A Song of degrees"), and one asshir la-ma'aloth (Psalm 121). According toSaadia Gaon, these songs differed from the other psalms in that they were to be sung by the Levites in a "loud melody" (Judeo-Arabic:בלחן מרתפע).[62] Every psalm designated for Asaph (e.g. Psalms 50, 73–83) was sung by his descendants while making use ofcymbals, in accordance with 1 Chronicles 16:5.[63][62] Every psalm wherein is found the introductory phrase "Upon Mahalath" (e.g. Psalms 53 and 88) was sung by the Levites by using large percussion instruments having wide and closed bezels on both sides and beaten with two wooden sticks.[64]
O. Palmer Robertson observes that many of the Psalms concern the subject of death and says "This unatural conclusion to every human life can be understood only in the context of the original threat to the original man: 'in the day you shall eat of it you shall surely die.'"[65] Robertson goes on to say "The anticipation from redemption fom the grave overcomes the inevitability of death. The psalmist is fully aware of his need for total deliverance from the last great enemy, and attests to expectation of deliverance."[66]
Individual psalms were originally hymns, to be used on various occasions and at various sacred sites; later, some were anthologised, and might have been understood within the various anthologies (e.g., ps. 123 as one of the Psalms of Ascent); finally, individual psalms might be understood within the Psalter as a whole, either narrating the life of David or providing instruction like the Torah. In later Jewish and Christian tradition, the psalms have come to be used as prayers, either individual or communal, as traditional expressions of religious feeling.[67]
Some of the titles given to the Psalms have descriptions which suggest their use in worship:
Some bear theHebrew descriptionshir (שיר;Greek:ᾠδή,ōdḗ, 'song'). Thirteen have this description. It means the flow of speech, as it were, in a straight line or in a regular strain. This description includes secular as well as sacred song.
Fifty-eight Psalms bear the descriptionmizmor (מזמור;ψαλμός,psalmos, 'psalm'), a lyricode set to music; a sacred song accompanied with a musical instrument.
Psalm 145 alone has the designationtehillah (תהלה;ὕμνος,hymnos, 'hymn'), meaning a song of praise; a song the prominent thought of which is the praise of God.
Thirteen psalms are described asmaskil ('wise'):32,42,44,45,52–55,74,78,88,89, and142.Psalm 41:2, although not in the above list, has the descriptionashrei maskil.
Six Psalms (16,56–60) have the titlemichtam (מכתם, 'gold').[87]Rashi suggests thatmichtam refers to an item that a person carries with him at all times, hence, these Psalms contain concepts or ideas that are pertinent at every stage and setting throughout life, deemed vital as part of day-to-day spiritual awareness.[88]
Psalm 7 (along withHabakkukchapter 3)[89] bears the titleshigayon (שיגיון). There are three interpretations:[90] (a) According to Rashi and others, this term stems from the rootshegaga, meaning "mistake"—David committed some sin and is singing in the form of a prayer to redeem himself from it; (b)shigayon was a type of musical instrument; (c)Ibn Ezra considers the word to mean "longing", as for example in the verse inProverbs 5:19[91]tishge tamid.
Psalms are used throughout traditionalJewish worship. Many complete Psalms and verses from Psalms appear in themorning services (Shacharit). Thepesukei dezimra component incorporates Psalms 30, 100 and 145–150.Psalm 145 (commonly referred to as "Ashrei", which is really the first word of two verses appended to the beginning of the Psalm), is read three times every day: once inshacharit as part ofpesukei dezimrah, as mentioned; once, along with Psalm 20, as part of the morning'sconcluding prayers; and once at the start of theafternoon service. OnFestival days and Sabbaths, instead of concluding the morning service, it precedes theMussaf service. Psalms 95–99, 29, 92, and 93, along with some later readings, comprise the introduction (Kabbalat Shabbat) to the Friday night service. Traditionally, a different "Psalm for the Day"—Shir shel yom—is read after themorning service each day of the week (starting Sunday, Psalms: 24, 48, 82, 94, 81, 93, 92). This is described in theMishnah (the initial codification of the Jewishoral tradition) in the tractateTamid. According to the Talmud, these daily Psalms were originally recited on that day of the week by the Levites in the Temple in Jerusalem. FromRosh ChodeshElul untilHoshanah Rabbah, Psalm 27 is recited twice daily following the morning and evening services. There is aMinhag (custom) to recite Psalm 30 each morning ofChanukkah after Shacharit: some recite this in place of the regular "Psalm for the Day", others recite this additionally.
When aJew dies, a watch is kept over the body andtehillim (Psalms) are recited constantly by sun or candlelight, until the burial service. Historically, this watch would be carried out by the immediate family, usually in shifts, but in contemporary practice this service is provided by an employee of the funeral home orchevra kadisha.
The reading of psalms is viewed in Jewish tradition as a vehicle for gaining God's favor. They are thus often specially recited in times of trouble, such as poverty, disease, or physical danger; in many synagogues, Psalms are recited after services for the security of theState of Israel.Sefer ha-Chinuch[92] states that this practice is designed not to achieve favor, as such, but rather to inculcate belief inDivine Providence into one's consciousness, consistently withMaimonides'general view on Providence. (Relatedly, the Hebrew verb for prayer,hitpalal התפלל, is in fact thereflexive form ofpalal פלל, to intervene, petition, judge. Thus, "to pray" conveys the connotation of "judging oneself": ultimately, the purpose of prayer—tefilah תפלה—is to transform ourselves.)[93]
New Testament references show that the earliest Christians used the Psalms in worship, and the Psalms have remained an important part ofworship in most Christian Churches. TheEastern Orthodox,Catholic,Presbyterian,Lutheran andAnglican Churches have always made systematic use of the Psalms, with a cycle for the recitation of all or most of them over the course of one or more weeks. In the early centuries of the Church, it was expected that any candidate forbishop would be able to recite the entire Psalter from memory, something they often learned automatically during their time asmonks.[94] Christians have usedPater Noster cords of 150 beads to pray the entire Psalter.[95]
Several conservative Protestant denominations sing only the Psalms (some churches also sing the small number of hymns found elsewhere in the Bible) in worship, and do not accept the use of any non-Biblical hymns; examples are theReformed Presbyterian Church of North America, the Presbyterian Reformed Church (North America) and theFree Church of Scotland (Continuing).
Psalm 22 is of particular importance during the season ofLent as a Psalm of continued faith during severe testing.
Psalm 23,The LORD is My Shepherd, offers an immediately appealing message of comfort and is widely chosen for churchfuneral services, either as a reading or in one of several popular hymn settings;
Psalm 51,Have mercy on me O God, called theMiserere from the first word in its Latin version, in bothDivine Liturgy andHours, in the sacrament of repentance or confession, and in other settings;
Psalm 145 by title 'A psalm of praise", is an accrostic of praise and David's final Psalm. Verses from it are frequently used in many contemporary worship songs and read by many contemporary worship leaders in services.
New translations and settings of the Psalms continue to be produced. An individually printed volume of Psalms for use in Christian religious rituals is called aPsalter.
Imam-ud-Din Shahbaz (1845-1921), a Punjabi evangelist and a poet, produced the first metrical translation of the Psalms in Punjabi, known as Punjabi Zabur. For a hundred years, Punjabi Zabur have been used as an essential part of singing and praising in majority of Urdu and Punjabi Churches around the globe.[citation needed]
Furthermore, psalms often serve as the inspiration for much ofmodern orcontemporary Christianworship music in a variety ofstyles. Some songs are entirely based on a particular psalm or psalms, and many quote directly from the Book of Psalms (and other parts of the Bible).[96]
Orthodox Christians and Greek-Catholics (Eastern Catholics who follow theByzantine rite) have long made the Psalms an integral part of their corporate and private prayers. The official version of thePsalter used by the Orthodox Church is the Septuagint. To facilitate its reading, the 150 Psalms are divided into 20kathismata (Greek: καθίσματα; Slavonic: кафизмы,kafizmy; lit. "sittings") and eachkathisma (Greek: κάθισμα; Slavonic: каѳисма,kafisma) is further subdivided into threestases (Greek: στάσεις,staseis lit. "standings", sing. στάσις,stasis), so-called because the faithful stand at the end of eachstasis for theGlory to the Father ....
AtVespers andMatins, differentkathismata are read at different times of theliturgical year and on different days of the week, according to the Church's calendar, so that all 150 psalms (20kathismata) are read in the course of a week. DuringGreat Lent, the number ofkathismata is increased so that the entire Psalter is read twice a week. In the twentieth century, some lay Christians have adopted a continuous reading of the Psalms on weekdays, praying the whole book in four weeks.
Aside fromkathisma readings, Psalms occupy a prominent place in every other Orthodox service including theservices of the Hours and theDivine Liturgy. In particular, the penitentialPsalm 50 is very widely used. Fragments of Psalms and individual verses are used asProkimena (introductions to Scriptural readings) andStichera. The bulk ofVespers would still be composed of Psalms even if the kathisma were to be disregarded;Psalm 118, "The Psalm of the Law", is the centerpiece ofMatins on Saturdays, some Sundays, and theFuneral service. The entire book of Psalms is traditionally read out loud or chanted at the side of the deceased during the time leading up to the funeral, mirroring Jewish tradition.
Several branches ofOriental Orthodox and thoseEastern Catholics who follow one of the Oriental Rites will chant the entire Psalter during the course of a day during theDaily Office. This practice continues to be a requirement ofmonastics in the Oriental churches.
The Psalms have always been an important part ofCatholic liturgy. TheLiturgy of the Hours is centered on chanting or recitation of the Psalms, using fixedmelodic formulas known aspsalm tones. Early Catholics employed the Psalms widely in their individual prayers also; however, as knowledge ofLatin (the language of theRoman Rite) became uncommon, this practice ceased among the unlearned. However, until the end of the Middle Ages, it was not unknown for the laity to join in the singing of theLittle Office of Our Lady, which was a shortened version of the Liturgy of the Hours providing a fixed daily cycle of twenty-five psalms to be recited, and nine other psalms divided across Matins.
The work of BishopRichard Challoner in providing devotional materials in English meant that many of the psalms were familiar to English-speaking Catholics from the eighteenth century onwards. Challoner translated the entirety of the Little Office into English, as well as Sunday Vespers and daily Compline. He also provided other individual Psalms such as 129/130 for prayer in his devotional books. Bishop Challoner is also noted for revising theDouay–Rheims Bible, and the translations he used in his devotional books are taken from this work.
Until theSecond Vatican Council the Psalms were either recited on a one-week or, less commonly (as in the case ofAmbrosian rite), two-week cycle. Different one-week schemata were employed: mostsecular clergy followed the Roman distribution, whileregular clergy almost universally followed that ofSt Benedict, with only a few congregations (such as theBenedictines of St Maur[97]) following individual arrangements. TheBreviary introduced in 1974 distributed the psalms over a four-week cycle. Monastic usage varies widely. Some use the four-week cycle of the secular clergy, many retain a one-week cycle, either following St Benedict's scheme or another of their own devising, while others opt for some other arrangement.
Official approval was also given to other arrangements[Notes 1] by which the complete Psalter is recited in a one-week or two-week cycle. These arrangements are used principally by Catholic contemplative religious orders, such as that of theTrappists.[Notes 2]
TheGeneral Instruction of the Liturgy of the Hours, 122 sanctions three modes of singing/recitation for the Psalms:
directly (all sing or recite the entire psalm);
antiphonally (two choirs or sections of the congregation sing or recite alternate verses or strophes); and
responsorially (the cantor or choir sings or recites the verses while the congregation sings or recites a given response after each verse).
Of these three the antiphonal mode is the most widely followed.[citation needed]
Over the centuries, the use of complete Psalms in theliturgy declined. After theSecond Vatican Council (which also permitted the use of vernacular languages in the liturgy), longer psalm texts were reintroduced into the Mass, during the readings. Therevision of theRoman Missal after the Second Vatican Council reintroduced the singing or recitation of a more substantial section of a Psalm, in some cases an entire Psalm, after the first Reading from Scripture. This Psalm, called theResponsorial Psalm, is usually sung or recited responsorially, although theGeneral Instruction of the Roman Missal 61 permits direct recitation.
By the 20th century, they were mostly replaced by hymns in church services. However, the Psalms are popular for private devotion among many Protestants and still used in many churches for traditional worship.[98] There exists in some circles a custom of reading one Psalm and one chapter ofProverbs a day, corresponding to the day of the month.
Metrical psalms are still widely sung in manyReformed congregations.
Anglican chant is a method of singing prose versions of the Psalms.
In the early 17th century, when theKing James Bible was introduced, the metrical arrangements by Thomas Sternhold and John Hopkins were also popular and were provided with printed tunes. This version and theNew Version of the Psalms of David by Tate and Brady produced in the late seventeenth century (see article onMetrical psalter) remained the normal congregational way of singing psalms in the Church of England until well into the nineteenth century.
In Great Britain, the 16th-centuryCoverdale psalter still lies at the heart of daily worship inCathedrals and manyparish churches. The newCommon Worship service book has a companion psalter in modern English.
The version of the psalter in the AmericanBook of Common Prayer prior to the 1979 edition is the Coverdale psalter. The Psalter in the American Book of Common Prayer of 1979 is a new translation, with some attempt to keep the rhythms of the Coverdale psalter.
^abVanderKam, James. The Dead Sea Scrolls Today. 2nd ed., Eerdmans, 2010, pp. 172—176.
^Collins, John J. Introduction to the Hebrew Bible: Third Edition (2018). p. 498. Fortress Press.
^Wilson, Gerald, "King, Messiah, and the Reign of God: Revisiting the Royal Psalms and the Shape of the Psalter." The Book of Psalms: Composition and Reception. p. 394. Brill. 2005.
^Ulrich, Eugene (2000).Qumran Cave 4: XI: Psalms to Chronicles. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0198269434.
^C. Westermann,The Living Psalms (trans. J. R. Porter; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1989; M. E. Tate,Psalms 51–100 (Waco, Texas: Word, 1990).
^G.H. Wilson,The Editing of the Hebrew Psalter (Chico, California: Scholars Press, 1985).
^W. Brueggemann, 'Bounded by Obedience and Praise: The Psalms as Canon',JSOT 50:63–92.
^B. S. Childs,Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979) 511–18; J. L. Mays, '"In a Vision": The Portrayal of the Messiah in the Psalms',Ex Auditu 7: 1–8; J. Forbes,Studies on the Book of Psalms (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1888).
^David C. Mitchell,The Message of the Psalter: An Eschatological Programme in the Book of Psalms, JSOT Supplement 252 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997).
^G.H. Wilson, 'King, Messiah, and the Reign of God: Revisiting the Royal Psalms and the Shape of the Psalter' in P. W. Flint and P. D. Miller (eds.),The Book of Psalms: Composition and Reception (Leiden: Brill, 2005).
^He has expanded his views on some subjects; see '"God Will Redeem My Soul From Sheol": The Psalms of the Sons of Korah',JSOT 30 (2006) 365–84; 'Lord, Remember David: G.H. Wilson and the Message of the Psalter',Vetus Testamentum 56 (2006) 526–48;The Songs of Ascents (Campbell: Newton Mearns, 2015) 211–16; 36–44.
^According to Saadia, the word is derived from the Hebrew rootאלם, signifying a "mute," or person who cannot speak. Although the wordעלמות as spelt in the psalm is with the Hebrew characterʻayin (ע), and the Hebrew word for "mute" is spelt with the Hebrew characteraleph (א), the two letters are interchangeable.
^Werner, The Sacred Bridge (New York: Columbia University Press, 1957) 419, 466.
^For discussion on the origins and antiquity of the Masoretic cantillation, see D.C. Mitchell,The Songs of Ascents (Campbell: Newton Mearns 2015): 122-137.
^S. Haïk-Vantoura,La musique de la Bible révélée (Robert Dumas: Paris, 1976);Les 150 Psaumes dans leurs melodies antiques (Paris: Fondation Roi David, 1985).
^Dalia Cohen and Daniel Weill. "Progress in Deductive Research on the Original Performance of Tiberian Accents (Te'amim)."Proceedings of the Ninth World Conference of Jewish Studies, Division D, Vol. II (Jerusalem, 1986): 265–80; cf. also, e.g., the review by P.T. Daniels,Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 112, No. 3 (Jul.–Sep., 1992), p. 499.
^D.C. Mitchell,The Songs of Ascents: Psalms 120 to 134 in the Worship of Jerusalem's temples (Campbell: Newton Mearns 2015); 'Resinging the Temple Psalmody',JSOT 36 (2012) 355–78; 'How Can We Sing the Lord's Song?' in S. Gillingham (ed.),Jewish and Christian Approaches to the Psalms (Oxford University Press, 2013) 119–133.
^The Flow of the Psalms, O. Palmer RobertsonP&R Publishing, 2015,ISBN978-1-62995-133-1, pp. 8-22
^מונדשיין, אהרן; Mondschein, Aharon (2010). "On Rashbam's Rediscovered 'Lost Commentary' on Psalms / על גילוי הפירוש ה'אבוד' של רשב"ם לספר תהלים ופרסום מוקדם של פירושו למזמורים קכ-קלו".Tarbiz / תרביץ.עט (א):91–141.ISSN0334-3650.JSTOR23607121.
^Meyer, Tom (27 March 2010)."Saint Sabas and the Psalms"(PDF).The Ecumenical Theological Research Fraternity in Israel.Archived(PDF) from the original on 14 July 2018. Retrieved14 July 2018.
^Doerr, Nan Lewis; Owens, Virginia Stem (28 August 2007).Praying with Beads: Daily Prayers for the Christian Year. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. viii.ISBN978-0-8028-2727-2.
^Concise Encyclopedia of Islam, C. Glasse,Messenger
^Wherry, Elwood Morris (1896).A Complete Index toSale's Text, Preliminary Discourse, and Notes. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co.
^A-Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism, B.M. Wheeler,Apostle
^Isabel LangIntertextualität als hermeneutischer Zugang zur Auslegung des Korans: Eine Betrachtung am Beispiel der Verwendung von Israiliyyat in der Rezeption der Davidserzählung in Sure 38: 21-25 Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH, 31.12.2015ISBN978-3-8325-4151-4 p. 98 (German)
^"Psalms". Oxford Center for Islamic Studies. Archived fromthe original on 26 July 2018.
Clifford, Richard J. (2010)."Psalms". In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.).The New Oxford Annotated Bible: New Revised Standard Version: with the Apocrypha: an Ecumenical Study Bible. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-528955-8.
Kselman, John S. (2007)."Psalms". In Coogan, Michael David; Brettler, Marc Zvi; Newsom, Carol Ann (eds.).The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-528880-3.
Mazor, Lea (2011)."Book of Psalms". In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine (eds.).The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-973004-9.
Murphy, Roland E. (1993)."Psalms". In Coogan, Michael D.; Metzger, Bruce (eds.).The Oxford Companion to the Bible. Oxford University Press.ISBN978-0-19-974391-9.
Prinsloo, Willem S. (2003)."Psalms". In Dunn, James D. G.; Rogerson, John William (eds.).Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible. Eerdmans.ISBN978-0-8028-3711-0.
Saadia Gaon (2010). Qafih, Yosef (ed.).תהלים עם תרגום ופירוש הגאון רבינו סעדיה בן יוסף פיומי זצ"ל [Book of Psalms, with a Translation and Commentary made by Rabbi Saadia Gaon] (in Hebrew). Kiryat-Ono: Makhon Moshe (Makhon Mishnat haRambam).OCLC741156698.
Simon, Uriel[in Hebrew] (1982).ארבע גישות לספר תהלים: מר׳ סעדיה גאון עד ר׳ אברהם אבן עזרא: כולל שריד מ׳שיטה ראשונה׳ של פירוש ראב״ע לתהלים שעדיין לא ראתה אור [Four Approaches to the Book of Psalms: from Saadiah Gaon to Abraham Ibn Ezra] (in Hebrew). Ramat Gan: Bar-Ilan University.ISBN978-965-226-031-4.OCLC10751226.
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