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Theprehistory of Ireland included aprotohistorical period, when the literate cultures ofGreece andRome began to take notice of it, and a furtherproto-literate period ofoghamepigraphy, before theearly historical period began in the 5th century. Attempts have been made to reconstruct the political developments of this period by reference toearly medieval Irish genealogical texts.
Classical writers occasionally refer to Ireland under a variety of names, but these references contain little reliable information. For example,Diodorus Siculus claims that thePrettanoi of the island ofIris eat human flesh.[1]Strabo, who calls the islandIerne, repeats the accusation, adding that they consider it honourable to eat their dead fathers, and openly have sex with their mothers and sisters (although he is sceptical about his sources).[2]Pomponius Mela calls itIuverna and says that, although the climate is unfavourable for grain, grass grows so richly that cattle burst if unrestrained from eating it.[3]Julius Caesar, in hisCommentarii de Bello Gallico, is the first to call the islandHibernia, describes it as about half the size of Britain, and correctly places it to the west of Britain[4] – unlike Strabo, who places it to the north.
Tacitus says that his father-in-lawGnaeus Julius Agricola, while governor of Britain (AD 78–85), considered conquering Ireland, believing it could be held with onelegion plusauxiliaries, and entertained an exiled Irish petty king with the intention of making him the pretext for conquest.[5] Parallels have been drawn with the Irish legend ofTúathal Techtmar, who is said to have been exiled to Britain as a child and returned with an army to claim the kingship ofTara in the 1st century.[6] Tacitus also says that most of the harbours and approaches to Ireland were known through commerce, but inaccurately locates the island between Britain and theIberian Peninsula.[5]
The 2nd-century poetJuvenal, in his secondSatire, contrasting the victories of the Roman army with the low morals of the people at home in Rome, says that, as well as conquering Britain and theOrkney islands, "we have advanced arms beyond the shores ofIuverna". Although Juvenal is not writing history, it is possible that he is referring to a genuine Roman military expedition to Ireland.[7]
The 2nd-centuryAlexandrian Greek writerPtolemy, one of the most important geographers, mathematicians and astronomers in the ancient world, refers to Ireland in two of his works. In the astronomical treatise known as theAlmagest he gives the latitudes of an island he callsMikra Brettania (Μικρὰ Βρεττανία) or "Little Britain" (the south of the island at 58 degrees, the north at 61 degrees). In hisGeography, at the same latitudes, he places the Prettanic islandIwernia, next to its neighbour, the Prettanic islandAlbion (Great Britain). TheGeography contains the most detailed account of Ireland in classical literature, giving the latitude and longitude of six promontories, fifteen river mouths, ten settlements and nine islands, and naming sixteen population groups.[8]
Ptolemy describes the northern coast of Ireland, from the Northern Promontory (possiblyBloody Foreland or Rossan Point inCounty Donegal) in the west, to theWenniknion promontory (probablyMalin Head), the mouth of the riverWidwa (probably theFoyle), the mouth of the riverArgita (perhaps theBann) and theRhobogdion promontory (Fair Head,County Antrim) in the east. The peoples who inhabit the north coast are theWenniknioi in the west and theRhobogdioi in the east.[8]
The west coast is poorly represented compared to the other three, and identification of the names Ptolemy gives is speculative. He begins with the Northern Promontory (see above), and working north to south names the riverRhawiu (possibly theErne); the townMagnata (a settlement of theMagnatai people, possibly somewhere inCounty Sligo); the mouth of the riversLibniu (possiblyClew Bay),Ausoba (perhapsGalway Bay)Senu (probably theShannon, although placed too far to the north),Dur (possiblyDingle Bay) andIernu (possibly theKenmare), and the Southern Promontory (any one ofSlea Head,Bray Head,Dursey Head andMizen Head). Peoples of this coast are: theErdinoi near Donegal Bay; theMagnatai orNagnatai of County Mayo and Sligo; theAuteinoi between County Galway and the Shannon, identifiable with the early medievalUaithni; theGanganoi, also known in northWales, and theWellaboroi in the far south-west.[8][9][10]
The south coast stretches from the Southern Promontory to the mouths of the riversDabrona (possibly theLee or theBlackwater) andBirgu (probably theBarrow) and the Sacred Promontory (Carnsore Point,County Wexford). Peoples of the south coast are theIwernoi in the west, who share their name with the island,Iwernia, and can be identified with the early medieval Érainn; theUsdiai, and theBrigantes in the east, who share their name with a people ofRoman Britain.[8][9]
From the Sacred Promontory in the south to theRhobogdion promontory in the north, Ptolemy names the riverModonnu (possibly theSlaney, but more likely theAvoca), the town ofManapia (a settlement of theManapii), the riverOboka (perhaps theLiffey; the river Avoca takes its modern name from a misinterpretation of Ptolemy'sOboka), the town ofEblana (a settlement of theEblanoi, formerly mistakenly identified withDublin), the riverBuwinda (theBoyne), the promontoryIsamnion, the riverWinderios (possiblyCarlingford Lough,Dundrum Bay orStrangford Lough), and the riverLogia (Belfast Lough,Loch Laoigh in Irish). Peoples named, from south to north, are: theKoriondoi; theManapioi, possibly related to theMenapii of Gaul; theKaukoi, probably not related to the GermanicChauci of the Low Countries; theEblanoi; theWoluntioi, identifiable with the early medievalUlaid; and theDarinoi.[8]
Roman sources mention raids on Britain bySaxons of north-westGermany, byPicts fromScotland and by two groups of people usually associated with Ireland, theScotti and theAtacotti. The origins and meanings of Scotti and Atacotti is uncertain. Atacotti disappears with the Romans. Scotti meansGaels toAdomnán in the late seventh century, but not to Columbanus in the early sixth century, who uses the older term Iberi instead. The Scotti are perhaps a confederation of tribes in Ulster, and the Atacotti one in Leinster, but this is not certain.[11]
