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Proto-Indo-Iranian religion was the religion of theIndo-Iranian peoples and includes topics such as themythology,legendry,folk tales, andfolk beliefs of early Indo-Iranian culture. Reconstructed concepts include the universal force*Hṛta- (Sanskritrta,Avestanasha), the sacred plant and drink*sawHma- (SanskritSoma, AvestanHaoma) and gods of social order such as*mitra- (SanskritMitra, Avestan and Old PersianMithra,Miϑra) and*bʰaga- (SanskritBhaga, Avestan and Old PersianBaga). Proto-Indo-Iranian religion is an archaic offshoot ofIndo-European religion.
Indo-Iranian languages include three subgroups: theIndo-Aryan languages (including theDardic languages), theIranian languages (east and west), and theNuristani languages. From these various and dispersed cultures, a set of common ideas may be reconstructed from which a common, unattested proto-Indo-Iranian source may be deduced.
When Vedic texts were the oldest surviving evidence of earlyIndo-European-speaking peoples, it was assumed that these texts preserved aspects ofProto-Indo-European culture with particular accuracy. Manyethnologists hoped to unify Indo-Iranian,Celtic,Norse,Greek,Germanic andRoman into aProto-Indo-European religion.Max Müller believed that Indo-Iranian religion began assun worship.Georges Dumézil stressed the tripartite social system of Indo-European religion and society. Later scholarship has moved away from considering all these religions near-identical.
Some beliefs developed in different ways as cultures separated and evolved. For example, the word 'daeva,' which appears in the Avesta, also bears a linguistic relationship to the Sanskrit word 'deva,' referring to one of the principal classes of gods, as well as other related words throughout the Indo-European traditions. Indeed,Indra, the greatest of the devas from Vedic literature, is often listed in Zoroastrian texts as one of the greatest of the evil forces, sometimes second only to Angra Mainyu himself.[1] In the traditional Zoroastrian confession of faith as recorded in theAvesta, the rejection of the daevas is one of the most significant qualifiers for a follower of the tradition, alongside worshipping Ahura Mazda and following the teachings ofZarathustra. Similarly, the parallels between the malevolent VedicAsuras and benevolent ZoroastrianAhuras are particularly obvious and striking.Varuna, the most powerful of the Asuras, does not directly correspond to Ahura Mazda but shares several traits in common with him, particularly in terms of his role as king among the lesser gods and arbiter of law and morality among mortals. Even asAhura Mazda rules by and upholds asha, the cosmic moral order, in the Avesta, so too do Varuna and the Asuras uphold the analogous concept of rta in theVedas.[1]
Sometimes certain myths developed in altogether different ways. TheRig-VedicSarasvati is linguistically and functionally cognate with Avestan*Haraxvaitī Ārəduuī Sūrā Anāhitā[citation needed]. In the Rig-Veda (6,61,5–7) she battles a serpent called Vritra, who has hoarded all of the Earth's water. In contrast, in early portions of the Avesta, Iranian *Harahvatiis the world-river that flows down from the mythical central Mount Hara. But *Harahvati does no battle — she is blocked by an obstacle (Avestan for obstacle:vərəϑra) placed there byAngra Mainyu.
The pre-Islamic religion of theNuristani people and extant religion of theKalash people is significantly influenced by the original religion of the Indo-Iranians, infused with accretions developed locally.[2][3][4][5][6]
By way of thecomparative method, Indo-Iranianphilologists, a variety ofhistorical linguist, have proposed reconstructions of entities, locations, and concepts with various levels of security in early Indo-Iranian folklore and mythology (reconstructions areindicated by the presence of an asterisk). The present article includes both reconstructed forms and proposedmotifs from the Proto-Indo-Iranian period, generally associated with theSintashta culture (2050–1900 BCE).[7]
The following is a list ofcognate terms that may be gleaned from comparative linguistic analysis of theRigveda andAvesta. Both collections are from the period after the proposed date of separation (ca. 2nd millennium BCE) of the Proto-Indo-Iranians into their respective Indic Iranian branches.
| Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction | Indo-Aryan | Iranian | Mitanni | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *Háǰʰiš | Ahi | Aži | – | – | |
| *Aryamā́ | SktAryaman | Av.Airiiaman | – | – | |
| *Bʰagás | SktBhaga | OPers.*Baga[8][a] | – | OPers.*Baga is inferred fromBāgayādi, month of the feast *Bagayāda- ('worshiping Baga = Mithra').[8] The etymology indicates a societal deity that distributes wealth and prosperity.[11][12]Slavicbog ('god') andbogátyj ('rich') are generally seen as loanwords from Iranian.[13] | |
| *Ćarwa[14] | SktŚarva[14] | YAv.Sauruua[14] | – | Perhaps related toToBśer(u)we,ToAśaru 'hunter'.[14] | Probably meaning 'hunter' (cf.Khot.hasirä 'quarry, hunted beast',Oss.suryn 'to chase, hunt',syrd 'wild beast'). An epithet ofRudra orŚiva in Sanskrit. Name of one thedaēuua (demons) in Young Avestan.[14] |
| *Dyauš[15] | SktDyáuṣ[15] | OAv.diiaoš[15] | – | FromPIE*dyēus, the daylight-sky god.[15] | Meaning 'heaven, daylight sky'. Name of the inheritedProto-Indo-European sky-god (cf.Hitt.šīuš,GrkZeus,Lat.Jove)[15] SeeDyēus for further information. |
| *Hagníš[16] | SktAgni[16] | YAv.Dāšt-āɣni[16] | FromPIE *h₁n̥gʷnis, the fire as an active force.[16] | Name of the inherited Proto-Indo-European fire-god (cf.Lith.Ugnis,Alb.enjte).[16] SeeH1n̥gʷnis for further information. | |
| *Hāpam-nápāts[17] | SktApā́m nápāt[17] | YAv.apᶏm napāt[17] | – | FromPIE *h2ep- ('water') and *h2nepot- ('grandson, descendant').[17] | Meaning 'Grandsons of the Waters'.[17] SeeApam Napat for further information. |
| *Haramati[18] | SktArámati[18] | Av.Ārmaiti[18] | – | No known IE cognate.[18] | Goddess of obedience and piety. Cf.Sktarámanas ('obedient') andAv.ārmaiti ('piety, devotion').[18] |
| *HatHarwan[19] | SktÁtharvan[19] | YAv.Āθrauuan[19] | – | Perhaps a borrowing from a Central Asian language (cf.ToAatär,ToBetre 'hero').[19] | Name of a primordial priest. The Sanskrit cognate is the name of the primordial priest, while the Young Avestan form designates the first social class (i.e. the priests). Scholars have rendered the stem *HatHar- as a 'religious-magical fluid' or 'magical potency'.[19] |
| *Hwi(H)waswant[20] | SktVivásvant[20] | YAv.Vīuuanhvant[20] | – | FromPIE *h2ues- 'dawn'.[20] | Meaning 'morning dawn'. Father of*YamHa (see below). Cf.Sktvaivasvatá andAv.vīuuaŋhuša- ('descending from Vivasvant').[20] |
| (?)*Wr̥trás[21] | SktVṛtrá[21] | YAv.Vǝrǝθraɣna[21] | – | No known IE cognate.[21] | *wr̥trás means 'defence' (the original meaning may have been 'cover').SktVṛtrá is the name of a demon slain by Indra, often depicted as a cobra.YAv.Vǝrǝθraɣna, meaning 'breaking of defence, victory', is the name of a god. Cf. also Middle PersianWahrām ('war god, god of victory'). TheArm. godVahagn is a loanword from Iranian.[21] |
| *Hušā́s[22] | SktUṣás[22] | OAv.Ušå[22][23] | – | FromPIE*h₂éws-ōs, the Dawn-goddess.[22] | Name of the dawn-goddess.[22] SeeH₂éwsōs for further information. |
| *Índras[24] | SktÍndra[24] | YAv.Indra[24] | Mit.Indara[25] | No known IE cognate.[24] | – |
| *Krćānu ~ *Krćāni[26] | SktKṛśā́nu[26] | YAv.Kərəsāni[26] | – | No known IE cognate.[26] | Divine being associated with theSoma. In Sanskrit, the divine archer that guards the celestialSoma; in Young Avestan, name of a hostile king driven away byHaoma.[26] |
| *Mánuš | SktManu[27] | Av.*Manūš[27] | – | FromPIE*Manu- ('Man', 'ancestor of humankind'; cf.Germ.Mannus).[27] | Av. *Manūš.čiθra ('image of Manuš') is inferred from Old PersianManūščihr, the name of a high priest.[27] |
| *Mitrás | SktMitrá | Av.Miθra | Mit.Mitra[25] | SeeMitra. | |
| SktNā́satyā[28] | Av.Nā̊ŋhaiθya[28] | Mit.Našattiya[25] | Probably fromPIE *nes- ('save, heal'; cf.Goth.nasjan).[28] | SktNā́satyā is another name for theAśvínā ('horse-possessors');Nā̊ŋhaiθya is the name of a demon in theZoroastrian religious system. According to scholar Douglas Frame, "the Iranian singular suggests that in Common Indo-Iranian the twins’ dual name also occurred in the singular to name one twin in opposition to the other".[28] SeeDivine Twins. | |
| *Pr̥tHwíH[29] | SktPṛth(i)vī́[29] | YAv.ząm pərəθβīm[29] | – | FromPIE*pleth₂wih₁ 'the broad one'.[29] | Name of the deified earth. The Sanskrit poetic formulakṣā́m ... pṛthivī́m ('broad earth') is identical toYAv.ząm pərəθβīm (id.)[29] SeeDʰéǵʰōm for further information. |
| *PuHšā́[30] | SktPisán[30] | – | – | FromPIE *p(e)h2uson (cf.GrkΠάων < *pausōn).[30] | Name of a herding-god, protector of roads, inspector of creatures.[30] |
| *Sušna[31] | SktŚúsna[31] | Sh.sāɣ(d)[31] | – | FromPIEḱues-.[31] | Name of a malevolent being. Proto-Iranian *sušnā- is inferred fromSh.sāɣ̌(d) ('big snake, dragon').[31] |
| *Tritá[32] | SktTritá[32] | YAv.θrita[32] | – | FromPIEtrito 'third'.[32] | Mythical hero; one of the first preparers of the Soma.[32] |
| SktVáruṇa | Av.*Vouruna(?)[33] | Mit.Aruna[25] | The Indo-Iranian ancestry is supported by MitanniAruna.[25] The Avestan*Vouruna is postulated as the form the god would have taken in Iran, perhaps later replaced byAhura Mazdā orApam Napat.[33] | ||
| *Ućan[34] | SktUśánā[34] | YAv.Usan[34] | – | Probably a non-IE name based on the same root as *ućig- ('sacrificer').[34] | Name of a sage.[34] |
| *HwaHyúš and *HwáHatas[35] | SktVāyú andVā́ta[35] | OAv.Vaiiu andVāta[35] | – | FromPIE*h2ueh1iu and*h2ueh1nto.[35] | Gods of winds.[35] |
| *YámHas[36] | SktYamá[36] | OAv.yə̃ma-[37] YAv.Yima[36] | – | FromPIE *imH-o 'twin'.[36] | Meaning 'twin'; inherited from Proto-Indo-European (cf. Old NorseYmir, the primeval giant). In Indo-Iranian, name of the mythical primeval man, first presser of the Soma, and son of the god *Hui(H)uasuant .[36] Cognate to the Indic goddessYamuna, adeified river. SeeIndo-European cosmogony for further information. |
| Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction | Indo-Aryan | Iranian | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *Háćmā[38] | Sktáśman[38] | YAv.asman[38] | FromPIE *h₂éḱmōn, 'stone, stone-made weapon; heavenly vault of stone'.[39][40] | Sktáśman means 'stone, rock, sling-stone, thunderbolt',YAv.asman 'stone, sling-stone, heaven'.[38] The originalPIE meaning appears to have been 'stone(-made weapon)' > 'heavenly vault of stone' (cf.Grkákmōn 'anvil, meteoric stone, thunderbolt, heaven',Goth.himins 'heaven',Lith.akmuõ 'stone').[39][40] SeePerkwunos (Heavenly vault of stone) for further information. |
| *SáraswatiH /saras-u̯at-iH-[41] | Sktsárasvatī | YAv.haraxᵛatī OPers.Harauvati[42] | FromPIE *séles 'marsh'.[43] | The name refers to a river (Sarasvati River in Sanskrit; orArachosia). Also the name of a river goddess,Saraswati.[44] |
| Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction | Meaning | Indo-Aryan | Iranian | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *daywás[45] | god, deity | Sktdevá[45] | OAv.daēuua[45][46] | FromPIE *deywós 'celestial > god'.[45] | The Iranian word is at the origin of thediv, a creature of Persian mythology, later spread to Turkic and Islamic mythologies.[47] |
| *daywiH[48] | goddess | Sktdevī́[48] | YAv.daēuuī[48] | FromPIE *deywih2 'goddess'.[48] | |
| *g(h)andh(a)rwas- ~g(h)andh(a)rbhas-[49] | Sktgandharvá[49] | YAv.gandərəba[49] | No known IE cognate.[49] | Group of mythical beings. | |
| *Hasuras[50] | god, lord | Sktásura[50] | Av.ahura[50] | FromPIE *h₂ems-u- < *h₂ems- ('to give birth').[50] | The singular in theAvesta refers toAhura Mazda.[51] According toAsko Parpola andVáclav Blažek, the word has been borrowed intoFinno-Ugric/Uralic languages as*asera- (Parpola) or*asɤrɜ- (Blazek), both meaning 'lord, prince, leader'.[52][53] |
| Proto-Indo-Iranian reconstruction | Meaning | Indo-Aryan | Iranian | Etymology | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *bhišáj[54] | 'healer' | Sktbhišáj-[54] | OAv.biš-[54] | No known IE cognate.[54] | |
| *dać-[55] | 'to offer, worship' | Sktdáś-[55] | OAv.dasəma[55] | FromPIE *deḱ-.[55] | |
| *diuiHa[56] | 'heavenly, divine' | Sktdivyá[56] | – | FromPIE*diwyós 'heavenly, divine'.[56] | |
| *gau(H)-[57] | 'call, invoke' | Sktgav(i)[57] | – | FromPIEgewh2-.[57] | cf. alsoOsset.argawyn < *agraw- ('to perform a church service').[57] |
| *grH-[58] | 'song of praise, invocation' | Sktgír[58] | OAv.gar-[58] | FromPIEgwerH-.[58] | |
| *(H)anću[59] | 'Soma plant' | Sktamśú-[59] | YAv.ᶏsu-[59] | Presumably a loanword.[59] | |
| *HaHpriH[60] | 'wishing, blessing, invocation' | Sktāprī́[60] | YAv.āfrī[60] | No known IE cognate.[60] | |
| *Hiáj[8] | 'to worship, sacrifice' | Sktyaj[8] | Av.yaz-[8] | FromPIE *hieh2ǵ-.[8] | |
| *Hiájata[61] | 'worthy of worship, sacrifice' | Sktyajatá[61] | Av.yazata-[61] | FromPIE *hieh2ǵ-.[61] | |
| *Hiájna[62] | 'worship, sacrifice' | Sktyajna[62] | Av.yasna-[62] | FromPIE *hieh2ǵ-.[62] | |
| *Hiša[63] | 'refreshing libation' | Sktídā[63] | OAv.īžā[63] | No known IE cognate.[63] | |
| *Hižd-[64] | 'to invoke, worship'[64] | Sktīd-[64] | OAv.īšas-[64] | FromPIE*h2eisd-.[64] | |
| *(H)rši[65] | 'seer'[65] | Sktṛ́si[65] | OAv.ərəšiš[65] | No known IE cognate.[65] | |
| *Hrta[66] | 'truth, (world-)order' | Sktṛtá[66] | OAv.aša, arəta[66] | FromPIE *h2rtó.[66] | |
| *HrtaHuan[67] | 'belonging to Truth' | Sktṛtā́van[67] | OAv.ašauuan[67] | FromPIE *h2rtó.[67] | |
| *j́hau-[68] | 'pour, sacrifice, offer'[68] | Skthav[68] | Av.ā-zuiti[68] | FromPIE *ǵheu-.[68] | |
| *j́hau-tar[69] | 'priest' | Skthótar[69] | Av.zaotar[69] | FromPIE *ǵheu-.[69] | |
| *j́hau-traH[70] | 'sacrificial pouring' | Skthótrā[70] | YAv.zaoθrā[70] | FromPIE *ǵheu-.[70] | |
| *namas[71] | 'to worship, honour' | Sktnámas[71] | Av.nəmah[71] | FromPIE *némos.[71] | |
| *sauma[72] | 'Soma-plant', a deified drink | Sktsóma[72] | YAv.haoma[72] | No known IE cognate.[72] | Probably referring toephedra.[72] |
| *uájra[73] | Mythical weapon | Sktvájra[73] | YAv.vazra[73] | FromPIE *ueh2ǵ-.[73] | Mythical weapon associated with Indra in India and with Mithra in Iran. Cf.Arm.varz ('stick'), a loanword from Iranian.[73] |
| *uand(H)[74] | 'to praise, honour' | Sktvandi[74] | YAv.vandaēta[74] | No known IE cognate.[74] | |
| *ućig[75] | 'sacrificer' | Sktuśíj[75] | OAv.usij[75] | Likely a borrowing from a Central Asian language.[75] | Sktuśíj is an epithet of sacrificers and of Agni.OAv.usij designates a 'sacrificer which is hostile towards the Zoroastrian religion'.[75] |
| *uipra[76] | 'exctasic, inspired' | Sktvípra[76] | YAv.vifra[76] | No known IE cognate.[76] | SeeViprata for further information. |
| *urata[77] | 'rule, order, religious commandment, observance' | Sktvratá[77] | OAv.uruuata[77] | No known IE cognate.[77] |
The Kalash (which means 'black' because of the black garments they wear) are an animist tribe who live in a region sometimes called Kafiristan.
{{cite encyclopedia}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)It is widely accepted that the Sarasvatī mentioned here is the river that gave the name Harakhvaiti.