| Proto-Celtic | |
|---|---|
| PC, Common Celtic | |
| Reconstruction of | Celtic languages |
| Region | Central orWestern Europe |
| Era | ca. 1300–800 BC |
Reconstructed ancestor | |
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Proto-Celtic, orCommon Celtic, is the reconstructed ancestralproto-language of all knownCeltic languages, and a descendant ofProto-Indo-European. It is not attested in writing but has been partlyreconstructed through thecomparative method. Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. Proto-Celtic is often associated with theUrnfield culture and particularly with theHallstatt culture. Celtic languages share common features withItalic languages that are not found in other branches of Indo-European, suggesting the possibility of an earlierItalo-Celtic linguistic unity.
Proto-Celtic is currently being reconstructed through the comparative method by relying on later Celtic languages. ThoughContinental Celtic presents much substantiation for Proto-Celticphonology, and some for itsmorphology, recorded material is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction ofsyntax, though some complete sentences are recorded in the ContinentalGaulish andCeltiberian. So, the main sources for reconstruction come fromInsular Celtic languages with the oldestliterature found inOld Irish[1] andMiddle Welsh,[2] dating back to authors flourishing in the 6th century AD.
Proto-Celtic is usually dated to theLate Bronze Age, ca. 1200–900 BC.[3] The fact that it is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Celtic word for 'iron' (traditionally reconstructed as*īsarnom) has long been taken as an indication that the divergence into individual Celtic languages did not start until the Iron Age (8th century BC to 1st century BC); otherwise, descendant languages might have developed their own, unrelated words for the metal. However, Schumacher[4] and Schrijver[5] suggest a date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of theCanegrate culture, in northwest Italy, and theUrnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age.[why?]
The phonological changes fromProto-Indo-European (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows.[6] The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list.
These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches.
The following sound changes are shared with theItalic languages in particular, and are cited in support of theItalo-Celtic hypothesis.[7]
One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m̩, *n̩, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latinem ~im,en ~in).
| PIE | PC | Example | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | Proto-Celtic | Old Irish | Welsh | |||||
| *p | *ɸ | *ph₂tḗr | *ɸatīr | father | athir | edrydd | cf. home (< *ɸatrijo-) | |
| *t | *t | *tréyes | *trīs | three | trí | tri | ||
| *k, ḱ | *k | *kh₂n̥-e- *ḱm̥tom | *kan-o- *kantom | sing hundred | canaid cét/kʲeːd/ | canu cant | ||
| *kʷ | *kʷ | *kʷetwores | *kʷetwares | four | ceth(a)ir | pedwar | ||
| *b | *b | *h₂ébōl | *abalom | apple | uball | afal | ||
| *d | *d | *derḱ- | *derk- | see | derc | eye | drych | sight |
| *g, ǵ | *g | *gleh₁i- *ǵen-u- | *gli-na- *genu- | to glue jaw | glen(a)id giun, gin | (he) sticks fast mouth | glynu gên | adhere jaw |
| *gʷ | *b | *gʷenh₂ | *bena | woman | ben | O.W.ben | ||
| *bʰ | *b | *bʰére- | *ber-o- | carry | berid | (he) carries | adfer cymeryd[12] | to restore to take |
| *dʰ | *d | *dʰeh₁i- | *di-na- | suck | denait | they suck | dynu, denu | |
| *gʰ, ǵʰ | *g | *gʰh₁bʰ-(e)y- *ǵʰelH-ro- | *gab-i- *galaro- | take sickness | ga(i)bid galar | (he) takes sickness | gafael galar | hold grief |
| *gʷʰ | *gʷ | *gʷʰn̥- | *gʷan-o- | kill, wound | gonaid | (he) wounds, slays | gwanu | stab |
| *s | *s | *sen-o- | *senos | old | sen | hen | ||
| *m | *m | *méh₂tēr | *mātīr | mother | máthir | modryb | cf. aunt | |
| *n | *n | *h₂nép-ōt- | *neɸūts | nephew | niad | nai | ||
| *l | *l | *leyǵʰ- | *lig-e/o- | lick | ligid | (he) licks | llyo, llyfu | |
| *r | *r | *h₃rēǵ-s | *rīgs | king | rí (gen.ríg) | rhi | ||
| *j | *j | *h₂yuh₁n-ḱós | *juwankos | young | óac | ieuanc | ||
| *w | *w | *h₂wl̥h₁tí- | *wlatis | rulership | flaith | gwlad | country | |
| PIE | PC | Example | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | Old Irish | Welsh | ||||||
| *a, *h₂e | *a | *h₂ep-h₃ōn- | *abū acc.*abonen | river | aub | afon | |||
| *ā, *eh₂ | *ā | *bʰréh₂tēr | *brātīr | brother | bráthir | brawd | |||
| *e, h₁e | *e | *sen-o- | *senos | old | sen | hen | |||
| *H | between consonants[13] | *a | *ph₂tḗr | *ɸatīr | father | athir | edrydd | cf. home | |
| *ē, eh₁ | *ī | *weh₁-ro- | *wīros | true | fír | gwir | |||
| *o, Ho, h₃e | *o | *Hroth₂o- | *rotos | wheel | roth | rhod | |||
| *ō, eh₃ | in final syllable | *ū | *h₂nép-ōt- | *neɸūts | nephew | niæ | nai | ||
| elsewhere | *ā | *deh₃no- | *dāno- | gift | dán | dawn | |||
| *i | *i | *gʷih₃-tu- | *bitus | world | bith | byd | |||
| *ī, iH | *ī | *rīmeh₂ | *rīmā | number | rím | rhif | |||
| *ai, h₂ei, eh₂i | *ai | *kaikos *seh₂itlo- | *kaikos *saitlo- | blind age | cáech — | one-eyed — | coeg hoedl | empty, one-eyed age | |
| *(h₁)ei, ēi, eh₁i | *ei | *deywos | *deiwos | god | día | duw | |||
| *oi, ōi, h₃ei, eh₃i | *oi | *oynos | *oinos | one | óen oín; áen aín | un | |||
| *u | before*wa | *o | *h₂yuh₁n-ḱós | *juwankos > *jowankos | young | óac | ieuanc | ||
| elsewhere | *u | *srutos | *srutos | stream | sruth | ffrwd | |||
| *ū, uH | *ū | *ruHneh₂ | *rūnā | mystery | rún | rhin | |||
| *au, h₂eu, eh₂u | *au | *tausos | *tausos | silent | táue | silence (*tausijā) | taw | ||
| *(h₁)eu, ēu, eh₁u; *ou, ōu, h₃eu, eh₃u | *ou | *tewteh₂ *gʷeh₃-u-s | *toutā *bows | people cow | túath bó | tud M.W.bu, biw | |||
| *l̥ | before stops | *li | *pl̥th₂nós | *ɸlitanos | wide | lethan | llydan | ||
| before other consonants | *al | *kl̥h₁- | *kaljākos | rooster | cailech (Ogham gen.caliaci) | ceiliog | |||
| *r̩ | before stops | *ri | *bʰr̩ti- | *briti- | act of bearing; mind | breth, brith | bryd | ||
| before other consonants | *ar | *mr̩wos | *marwos | dead | marb | marw | |||
| *m̩ | *am | *dm̩-nh₂- | *damna- | subdue | M.Ir. damnaid | he ties, fastens, binds | — | ||
| *n̩ | *an | *h₃dn̥t- | *dant | tooth | dét/dʲeːd/ | dant | |||
| *l̩H | beforeobstruents | *la | *h₂wlh₁tí- | *wlatis | lordship | flaith | gwlad | country | |
| beforesonorants | *lā | *pl̩Hmeh₂ | *ɸlāmā | hand | lám | llaw | |||
| *r̩H | before obstruents | *ra | *mr̩Htom | *mratom | betrayal | mrath | brad | ||
| before sonorants | *rā | *ǵr̩Hnom | *grānom | grain | grán | grawn | |||
| *m̩H | (presumably with same distribution as above) | *am/mā | *dm̩h₂-ye/o- | *damje/o- | to tame | daimid fodam- | daimid - | goddef | endure, suffer |
| *n̩H | *an/nā | *ǵn̩h₃to- ? | *gnātos | known | gnáth | gnawd | customary | ||
The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC):
| Manner | Voicing | Bilabial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| plain | labialized | |||||
| Plosive | voiceless | t | k | kʷ | ||
| voiced | b | d | ɡ | ɡʷ | ||
| Fricative | ɸ | s | x | |||
| Nasal | m | n | ||||
| Approximant | l | j | w | |||
| Trill | r | |||||
Eska has recently proposed that PC stops allophonically manifestsimilarly to those in English. Voiceless stop phonemes/tk/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by/s/, hence aspirate allophones[tʰkʰ]; unaspirated voiced stops/bdɡ/ were devoiced to[ptk] word-initially.[14][15]
This allophony may be reconstructed to PC from the following evidence:[14][15]
Proto-Indo-European (PIE)voiced aspirate stops *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ/ǵʰ, merge with *b, *d, *g/ǵ in PC. The voiced aspiratelabiovelar *gʷʰ did not merge with *gʷ, though: plain *gʷ became PC *b, while aspirated *gʷʰ became *gʷ. Thus, PIE*gʷen- 'woman' became Old Irish and Old Welshben, but PIE*gʷʰn̥- 'to kill, wound' became Old Irishgonaid and Welshgwanu.
PIE *p is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages *ɸ (possibly a stage *[pʰ])[14] and *h (perhaps seen in the nameHercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. Next to consonants, PC *ɸ underwent different changes: theclusters *ɸs and *ɸt became *xs and *xt respectively already in PC. PIE *sp- became Old Irishs (f- when lenited, exactly as for PIE *sw-) and Brythonicf; whileSchrijver 1995, p. 348 argues there was an intermediate stage *sɸ- (in which *ɸ remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic),McCone 1996, pp. 44–45 finds it more economical to believe that *sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change *p to *ɸ did not happen when *s preceded. (Similarly,Grimm's law did not apply to *p, t, k after *s inGermanic, and the same exception occurred again in theHigh German consonant shift.)
| Proto-Celtic | Old Irish | Welsh |
|---|---|---|
| *laɸs- >*laxs- 'shine' | las-aid | llach-ar |
| *seɸtam >*sextam 'seven' | secht | saith |
| *sɸeret- or*speret- 'heel' | seir | ffêr |
InGaulish and theBrittonic languages, the Proto-Indo-European*kʷ phoneme becomes a newp sound. Thus, Gaulishpetuar[ios],Welshpedwar "four", butOld Irishcethair andLatinquattuor. Insofar as this new/p/ fills the gap in the phoneme inventory which was left by the disappearance of the equivalent stop in PIE, we may think of this as achain shift.
The termsP-Celtic andQ-Celtic are useful for grouping Celtic languages based on the way they handle this one phoneme. But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancientContinental Celtic languages. The unusual shared innovations among theInsular Celtic languages are often also presented as evidence against a P-vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a commonsubstratum influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland,[1], or simply continuing contact between the insular languages; in either case they would be irrelevant to the genetic classification of Celtic languages.
Q-Celtic languages may also have/p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish,/kʷ/ was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a/p/ phoneme at the time:
Gaelicpóg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phraseosculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage wherep was borrowed directly asp, without substitutingc.
The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE byAntoine Meillet. The followingmonophthongs are reconstructed:
The followingdiphthongs have also been reconstructed:
| Type | With-i | With-u |
|---|---|---|
| Witha- | ai | au |
| Witho- | oi | ou |
Themorphological structure ofnouns andadjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from the parent language. Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in threegenders, threenumbers and five to eight cases. The genders were masculine, feminine and neuter; the numbers were singular, plural and dual. The number of cases is a subject of contention:[16] while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered[by whom?] rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions ormorphological leveling. These cases werenominative,vocative,accusative,dative,genitive,ablative,locative andinstrumental.
Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. There are *o-stems, *ā-stems, *i-stems, *u-stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, *r-stems and *s-stems.
*makkʷos 'son' (masculine) (Old Irishmac ~Welsh,Cornish andBretonmab)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *makkʷos | *makkʷou | *makkʷoi |
| Vocative | *makkʷe | *makkʷou | *makkʷūs |
| Accusative | *makkʷom | *makkʷou | *makkʷūs |
| Genitive | *makkʷī | *makkʷūs | *makkʷom |
| Dative | *makkʷūi | *makkʷobom | *makkʷobos |
| Ablative | *makkʷū | *makkʷobim | *makkʷobis |
| Instrumental | *makkʷū | *makkʷobim | *makkʷūs |
| Locative | *makkʷei | *makkʷou | *makkʷobis |
However, Celtiberian shows -o- stem genitives ending in-o rather than-ī:aualo "[son] of Avalos".[17] Also note that the genitive singular does not match Proto-Indo-European's-osyo, which would have yielded-osjo.
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *dūnom | *dūnou | *dūnā |
| Vocative | *dūnom | *dūnou | *dūnā |
| Accusative | *dūnom | *dūnou | *dūnā |
| Genitive | *dūnī | *dūnūs | *dūnom |
| Dative | *dūnūi | *dūnobom | *dūnobos |
| Ablative | *dūnū | *dūnobim | *dūnobis |
| Instrumental | *dūnū | *dūnobim | *dūnūs |
| Locative | *dūnei | *dūnou | *dūnobis |
As in the masculine paradigm, the genitive singular does not match Proto-Indo-European's-osyo, which would have yielded-osjo.
E.g.*ɸlāmā 'hand' (feminine) (Old Irishlám;Welshllaw},Cornishleuv,Old Bretonlom)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ɸlāmā | *ɸlāmai | *ɸlāmās |
| Vocative | *ɸlāmā | *ɸlāmai | *ɸlāmās |
| Accusative | *ɸlāmām | *ɸlāmai | *ɸlāmās |
| Genitive | *ɸlāmās | *ɸlāmajous | *ɸlāmom |
| Dative | *ɸlāmāi | *ɸlāmābom | *ɸlāmābos |
| Ablative | *ɸlāmī | *ɸlāmābim | *ɸlāmābis |
| Instrumental | *ɸlāmī | *ɸlāmābim | *ɸlāmābis |
| Locative | *ɸlāmāi | *ɸlāmābim | *ɸlāmābis |
E.g.*sūlis 'sight, view, eye' (feminine) (Brittonicsulis ~Old Irishsúil)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *sūlis | *sūlī | *sūlīs |
| Vocative | *sūli | *sūlī | *sūlīs |
| Accusative | *sūlim | *sūlī | *sūlīs |
| Genitive | *sūleis | *sūljous | *sūljom |
| Dative | *sūlei | *sūlibom | *sūlibos |
| Ablative | *sūlī | *sūlibim | *sūlibis |
| Instrumental | *sūlī | *sūlibim | *sūlibis |
| Locative | *sūlī | *sūlibim | *sūlibis |
E.g.*mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) (GaulishMori- ~Old Irishmuir ~Welshmôr)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *mori | *morī | *moryā |
| Vocative | *mori | *morī | *moryā |
| Accusative | *mori | *morī | *moryā |
| Genitive | *moreis | *moryous | *moryom |
| Dative | *morei | *moribom | *moribos |
| Ablative | *morī | *moribim | *moribis |
| Instrumental | *morī | *moribim | *moribis |
| Locative | *morī | *moribim | *moribis |
E.g.*bitus 'world, existence' (masculine) (GaulishBitu- ~Old Irishbith ~Welshbyd ~Bretonbed)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *bitus | *bitou | *bitowes |
| Vocative | *bitu | *bitou | *bitowes |
| Accusative | *bitum | *bitou | *bitūs |
| Genitive | *bitous | *bitowou | *bitowom |
| Dative | *bitou | *bitubom | *bitubos |
| Ablative | *bitū | *bitubim | *bitubis |
| Instrumental | *bitū | *bitubim | *bitubis |
| Locative | *bitū | *bitubim | *bitubis |
E.g.*beru "rotisserie spit" (neuter)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *beru | *berou | *berwā |
| Vocative | *beru | *berou | *berwā |
| Accusative | *beru | *berou | *berwā |
| Genitive | *berous | *berowou | *berowom |
| Dative | *berou | *berubom | *berubos |
| Ablative | *berū | *berubim | *berubis |
| Instrumental | *berū | *berubim | *berubis |
| Locative | *berū | *berubim | *berubis |
Before the*-s of the nominative singular, a velar consonant wasfricated to*-x :*rīg- "king" >*rīxs. Likewise, final*-ddevoiced to*-t-:*druwid- "druid" >*druwits.[18]
E.g.*rīxs "king" (masculine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *rīxs | *rīge | *rīges |
| Vocative | *rīxs | *rīge | *rīges |
| Accusative | *rīgam | *rīge | *rīgās |
| Genitive | *rīgos | *rīgou | *rīgom |
| Dative | *rīgei | *rīgobom | *rīgobos |
| Ablative | *rīgī | *rīgobim | *rīgobis |
| Instrumental | *rīge | *rīgobim | *rīgobis |
| Locative | *rīgi | *rīgobim | *rīgobis |
E.g.*druwits "druid" (masculine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *druwits | *druwide | *druwides |
| Vocative | *druwits | *druwide | *druwides |
| Accusative | *druwidem | *druwide | *druwidās |
| Genitive | *druwidos | *druwidou | *druwidom |
| Dative | *druwidei | *druwidobom | *druwidobos |
| Ablative | *druwidī | *druwidobim | *druwidobis |
| Instrumental | *druwide | *druwidobim | *druwidobis |
| Locative | *druwidi | *druwidobim | *druwidobis |
E.g.*karants "friend" (masculine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *karants | *karante | *karantes |
| Vocative | *karants | *karante | *karantes |
| Accusative | *karantam | *karante | *karantās |
| Genitive | *karantos | *karantou | *karantom |
| Dative | *karantei | *karantobom | *karantobos |
| Ablative | *karantī | *karantobim | *karantobis |
| Instrumental | *karante | *karantobim | *karantobis |
| Locative | *karanti | *karantobim | *karantobis |
Generally, nasal stems end in *-on-; this becomes *-ū in the nominative singular: *abon- "river" > *abū.
E.g.*abū "river" (feminine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *abū | *abone | *abones |
| Vocative | *abū | *abone | *abones |
| Accusative | *abonam | *abone | *abonās |
| Genitive | *abonos | *abonou | *abonom |
| Dative | *abonei | *abnobom | *abnobos |
| Ablative | *abonī | *abnobim | *abnobis |
| Instrumental | *abone | *abnobim | *abnobis |
| Locative | *aboni | *abnobim | *abnobis |
E.g.*anman "name" (neuter)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *anman | *anmanī | *anmanā |
| Vocative | *anman | *anmanī | *anmanā |
| Accusative | *anman | *anmanī | *anmanā |
| Genitive | *anmēs | *anmanou | *anmanom |
| Dative | *anmanei | *anmambom | *anmambos |
| Ablative | *anmanī | *anmambim | *anmambis |
| Instrumental | *anmane | *anmambim | *anmambis |
| Locative | *anmani | *anmambim | *anmambis |
Generally,*s-stems contain an*-es-, which becomes*-os in the nominative singular:*teges- 'house' >*tegos.
E.g.*tegos "house" (neuter)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *tegos | *tegese | *tegesa |
| Vocative | *tegos | *tegese | *tegesa |
| Accusative | *tegos | *tegese | *tegesa |
| Genitive | *tegesos | *tegesou | *tegesom |
| Dative | *tegesi | *tegesobom | *tegesobos |
| Ablative | *tegesī | *tegesobim | *tegesobis |
| Instrumental | *tegese | *tegesobim | *tegesobis |
| Locative | *tegesi | *tegesobim | *tegesobis |
E.g. *ɸatīr 'father' (masculine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *ɸatīr | *ɸatere | *ɸateres |
| Vocative | *ɸatīr | *ɸatere | *ɸateres |
| Accusative | *ɸateram | *ɸatere | *ɸaterās |
| Genitive | *ɸatros | *ɸatrou | *ɸatrom |
| Dative | *ɸatrei | *ɸatrebom | *ɸatrebos |
| Ablative | *ɸatrī | *ɸatrebim | *ɸatrebis |
| Instrumental | *ɸatre | *ɸatrebim | *ɸatrebis |
| Locative | *ɸatri | *ɸatrebim | *ɸatrebis |
E.g. *mātīr 'mother' (feminine)
| Case | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nominative | *mātīr | *mātere | *māteres |
| Vocative | *mātīr | *mātere | *māteres |
| Accusative | *māteram | *mātere | *māterās |
| Genitive | *mātros | *mātrou | *mātrom |
| Dative | *mātrei | *mātrebom | *mātrebos |
| Ablative | *mātrī | *mātrebim | *mātrebis |
| Instrumental | *mātre | *mātrebim | *mātrebis |
| Locative | *mātri | *mātrebim | *mātrebis |
The following personal pronouns in Celtic can be reconstructed as follows:[19]: 220–221 [20]: 281
| Case | First-person | Second-person | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | *mī | *snī | *tū | *swī |
| Accusative | *me[* 1] | *snos | *tu | *swes |
| Genitive | *mene[* 2] | ? | *towe | ? |
The following third-person pronouns in Proto-Celtic may also be reconstructed.[21]: 62 [19]: 220
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | ||
| Nominative | *es,*ēs | *sī | *ed | *eyes |
| Accusative | *em | *seyam?*sīm? | *sūs | |
| Genitive | *esyo | *esyās | *esyo | *ēsom?*esom? |
| Dative Instrumental Locative | *e(s)yōi | *esyāi | *e(s)yōi | *ēbis |
Forms of the masculine singular relative pronoun *yo- can be found in the firstBotorrita plaque: The formio-s in line 10 is the nominative singular masculine of the relative pronoun from Proto-Indo-European*yo- (Sanskritya-, Greekhos), which shows up in Old Irish only as the aspiration for leniting relative verb forms. Line 7 has the accusative singulario-m and the dative singulario-mui of the same root.[22]
Adjectives in Proto-Celtic had positive, comparative, superlative and equativedegrees of comparison.[23]
Four inflection classes for positive-degree adjectives are known. Most adjectives belonged to theo-ā class, in which the adjectives inflected like masculineo-stems, neutero-stems and feminineā-stems when agreeing with nouns of their respective genders. A much smaller minority of adjectives werei- andu-stems.[23]
Consonant-stem adjectives also existed but were vanishingly rare, with only relics in Old Irish liketé "hot" <*teɸents.
The comparative degree was formed on most adjectives by attaching*-yūs to the adjective stem. For instance,*senos "old" would have a comparative*senyūs "older". However, someCaland system adjectives instead had a comparative ending in*-is, which was then extended to*-ais. For example,*ɸlitanos "wide" had a comparative*ɸletais.[24]
The superlative was formed by simply attaching*-isamos to the adjective stem. In some adjectives where the stem ends in*s, the suffix is truncated to*-(s)amos byhaplology.[24] Thus,*senos "old" would have a superlative*senisamos "oldest" but*trexsnos (stem*trexs-) would have a superlative*trexsamos.
From comparison between early Old Irish and Gaulish forms it seems that Continental and Insular Celtic verbs developed differently and so the study of Irish and Welsh may have unduly weighted past opinion of Proto-Celtic verb morphology.[citation needed] It can be inferred from Gaulish and Celtiberian as well as Insular Celtic that the Proto-Celtic verb had at least three moods:
and four tenses:
A probableoptative mood also features in Gaulish (tixsintor) and aninfinitive (with a characteristic ending-unei) in Celtiberian.[25][26]
Verbs were formed by addingsuffixes to averbalstem. The stem might bethematic orathematic, anopen or aclosed syllable.
The primary endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows. They were used to form the present, future, and subjunctive conjugations.[19]
| Person and number | Basic endings | Thematic present | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active | Mediopassive | Active | Mediopassive | |
| 1stsg. | *-ū(thematic) *-mi(athematic) | *-ūr | *-ū | *-ūr |
| 2ndsg. | *-si | *-tar | *-esi | *-etar |
| 3rdsg. | *-ti | *-tor | *-eti | *-etor |
| 1stpl. | *-mosi | *-mor | *-omosi | *-omor |
| 2ndpl. | *-tesi | *-dwe | *-etesi | *-edwe |
| 3rdpl. | *-nti | *-ntor | *-onti | *-ontor |
Proto-Celtic possessed a diverse set of ways to form present stems. They can be roughly be divided into two broad categories of athematic and thematic.
These two inflectional categories can themselves be subdivided based on the means of derivation from a verb root via a combination of rootablaut grades and suffixes. These derivational classes include:[27]: 36–47
| Inflectional class | Root ablaut | Affix | Class | KPV designation |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Thematic | e-grade | (none) | Simple thematic | A-1 |
| *-ye- | e-grade*-ye- | A-5 | ||
| *-de- | e-grade*-de- | A-6 | ||
| o-grade | *-ī- *-eyo- | *-eye- causative/iterative | (none) | |
| zero grade | (none) | Thematized root athematic | A-2 | |
| tudáti-type thematic | ||||
| *-ske- | *-ske- inchoative | A-3 | ||
| *-ye- | zero-grade*-ye- | A-4 | ||
| Nasal infix | Aniṭ-root nasal-infix | A-8 | ||
| i-reduplication | i-reduplicated present | A-15 | ||
| (varied) | *-āye- | Denominative | (none) | |
| Athematic | e-grade | (none) | CeRH-root present | A-13 |
| zero grade | *-na- (when levelled) | seṭ-root nasal-infix | A-8 | |
| *-nu- | *-new- present | A-10 | ||
| *-ī- | essive | A-7 | ||
| (varied) | *-ā- | factitive | (none) |
In Proto-Celtic, the Indo-Europeannasal infix presents split into two categories: ones originally derived from laryngeal-final roots (i.e.seṭ roots in Sanskrit), and ones that were not (i.e. fromaniṭ roots). Inseṭ verbs, the nasal appears at the end of the present stem, while inaniṭ-derived verbs the nasal was followed by a root-final stop (generally-g- in Old Irish).
Aniṭ nasal infix verbs conjugated exactly like basic thematic verbs in the present tense.
However, the origin of the invariant root vowel in-o- in*CewC- roots in Old Irish is unclear. Usually, it is held that the consonantism in these verbs was generalized in favour of the plural stem*CunC- in Old Irish. One would expect alternation betweeno in the 1st- and 3rd- person plural and-u- elsewhere in the present; but for both contexts Old Irish only attests-o-.
The following verbs can be reconstructed in this class:
On the other hand, theseṭ presents originally had a long vowel after the nasal in the singular and-a- after the nasal in the plural, but the attested Celtic languages levelled this alternation away. Gaulish shows traces of the singular long-vowel vocalism while Old Irish generalized the plural-a- to the singular.[28]
Theseṭ nasal-infix presents were further subdivided into subcategories based on the root-final laryngeal. Traditionally two subclasses have long been accepted, the*h₁ subclass (cited with a-ni- suffix) and*h₂ (cited with a-na- suffix).*h₃ nasal-infixed verbs were often leveled to act like*h₂ verbs, being also cited with a-na- suffix; the only original difference between the two would have been the 3rd-person plural ending in*-nonti instead of*-nanti.
The nasal-infixseṭ verbs in Proto-Celtic underwent multiplelevelings. First, the suffixal vowel in the plural forms was harmonized so that they would all be the short counterpart to the vowel in the singular forms. Then all the long vowels in the singular were shortened to make the suffix vowel identical in quality and length across all person-number combinations.[29]: 11–23
| Person and number | Pre-leveling | Leveling of vowel quality | Leveling of vowel length | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| *h₁ verbs | *h₂ verbs | *h₃ verbs | *h₁ verbs | *h₂ and*h₃ verbs | *h₁ verbs | *h₂ and*h₃ verbs | |
| 1stsg. | *-nīmi | *-nāmi | *-nāmi | *-nīmi | *-nāmi | *-nimi | *-nami |
| 2ndsg. | *-nīsi | *-nāsi | *-nāsi | *-nīsi | *-nāsi | *-nisi | *-nasi |
| 3rdsg. | *-nīti | *-nāti | *-nāti | *-nīti | *-nāti | *-niti | *-nati |
| 1stpl. | *-namosi | *-namosi | *-namosi | *-nimosi | *-namosi | *-nimosi | *-namosi |
| 2ndpl. | *-natesi | *-natesi | *-natesi | *-nitesi | *-natesi | *-nitesi | *-natesi |
| 3rdpl. | *-nenti | *-nanti | *-nonti | *-ninti | *-nanti | *-ninti | *-nanti |
The followingseṭ-root nasal presents are reconstructible for Proto-Celtic:
There were two or three major preterite formations in Proto-Celtic, plus another moribund type.
The s-, t-, and root aorist preterites take Indo-European secondary endings, while the reduplicated suffix preterite took stative endings. These endings are:[27]: 62–67
| Person and number | Ending type | |
|---|---|---|
| Secondary endings | Stative endings | |
| 1stsg. | *-am | *-a |
| 2ndsg. | *-s | *-as |
| 3rdsg. | *-t | *-e |
| 1stpl. | *-mo(s) | *-mo |
| 2ndpl. | *-te(s) | *-te |
| 3rdpl. | *-ant | *-ar |
The Old Irish t-preterite was traditionally assumed to be a divergent evolution from the s-preterite, but that derivation was challenged byJay Jasanoff, who alleges that they were instead imperfects ofNarten presents. Either derivation requires Narten ablaut anyway, leading to a stem voweli in the singular ande in the plural. The stem vowel in the t-preterite was leveled to*e if the next consonant was either velar or*m, and*i in front of*r or*l.[30]
Many suffixless preterite formations featuredreduplication. The nature of the reduplication depends on the structure of the root.[27]: 68–79
| Root | Meaning | Shape | Preterite stem | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| *keng- | "to step" | Other root types | *ke-kong- | Classic Indo-European reduplication, where the root is put in theo-grade and the prefixed reduplicant is formed with the first consonant followed by*e. |
| *nigʷ- | "to wash" | *C(R)eiT- | *ni-noig- | In Proto-Celtic, roots with a semivowel (PIE*-y- or *-w-) before a non-laryngeal consonant have the reduplicant formed not with the first consonant of the root followed by*e, but instead the first consonant of the root followed by the semivowel. The root itself remains in theo-grade. |
| *duk- | "to lead, carry" | *C(R)euT- | *du-douk- | |
| *gʷed- | "to pray" | *CeT- | *gʷād- | Roots ending in only a single stop as their coda generally merely change the stem vowel to*ā to form their preterite, without apparent reduplication. It originally spread from*ād- (from*h₁e-h₁od-), the preterite stem for*ed- "to eat". |
| *kerd- | "to throw, put" | *CeRT- | *kard- | A few roots in*CeRT- also had the*CeT- preterite formation applied to them but the long*ā was shortened due toOsthoff's law. |
| *dā- | "to give" | *C(C)eH- | *de-dū (singular) *ded(a)- (plural) | Laryngeal-final roots produced long vowels in the root syllable in the singular, but not in the plural (where the root was in the zero-grade instead). Usually the singular stem was generalized in Celtic, but in these cases the plural stem was generalized. |
| *kʷri- | "to buy" | *C(R)eiH- | *kʷi-kʷr- | The treatment for*CeH- roots was also extended to*C(R)eiH- roots. Due to the roots' semivowel, the reduplicant also contains the semivowel. |
One major formation of the future in Celtic, thes-future, is possibly a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European(h₁)se-desiderative, withi-reduplication in multiple verbs. The Old Irisha- ands-future also come from here.[29] According to the philologist Calvin Watkins, the Old Irish s-future may derive from a type of Proto-Indo-European desiderative formation in which the initial consonant was reduplicated with an interveningi-vowel followed by a sigmatic suffix with the accent placed on the thematic vowel. For instance, Watkins reconstructs a pre-form*gʷʰigʷʰr̥- (from the root*gʷʰer-) as the ancestor of the Old Irish future formgéra.[31] The linguists Eugen Hill and Jay Jasanoff compare this formation to the reduplicated desiderative ofIndo-Iranian (e.g. Sanskritbíbhitsati) and reconstruct an originally thematic paradigm.[32][33] Hill, in particular, cites the Old Irish termrigid, for which he reconstructs a Proto-Celtic form*ri-rix-sū, itself perhaps—according to Hill—from pre-Proto-Celtic*ri-riǵ-sō.[34] The linguist Frederick Kortlandt further proposes that the reduplicated future of Old Irish may parallel several reduplicated forms in Italic, such as Oscanfifikus.[35] However, the Kortlandt alternatively suggests that the s-future and s-subjunctive ultimately derive from the Proto-Indo-European sigmatic aorist and reflect an athematic paradigm.[36] Kortlandt argues that this older athematic inflection was then replaced by secondary thematic endings. Thus, Kortlandt derives Old Irish future forms such asfessa from*wiweksom andgeiss from*gʷedses.[37] Moreover, Kortlandt notes the existence of a full-grade Old Irish future formgignethar and a zero-grade formgéna, which may parallel Sanskritjíjaniṣate andjíghāṃsati respectively. According to Kortlandt, the recessive accent of both forms and the full-grade of the former indicate an originally athematic inflection.[38] Jasanoff argues that whereas the Old Irish reduplicated future derives from a thematic source, the unreduplicated s-future is etymologically connected to theSabellic athematic future (e.g.Oscanfust), both of which—according to Jasanoff—hold athematic origins.[32] Another future formation, attested only inGaulish, is the-sye-desiderative.[citation needed]
Most verbs took one subjunctive suffix in Proto-Celtic,-(a)s-, followed by the thematic primary endings.[29] The subjunctive in Proto-Celtic was a descendant of the subjunctive of an Indo-European sigmatic thematic formation*-seti. The-ase- variant originated in roots that ended in alaryngeal in Proto-Indo-European; when the*-se- suffix was attached right after a laryngeal, the laryngeal regularly vocalized into*-a-. It would then analogically spread to other Celtic strong verb roots ending in sonorants in addition to the weak verbs, even if the root did not originally end in a laryngeal.[29]
There were also two, possibly three verbs that did not use-(a)se-, instead straight-out taking thematised primary endings. They are:*bwiyeti "to be, exist" (subjunctive*bweti),*klinutor "to hear" (subjunctive*klowetor), and possibly*ɸalnati “to approach, drive” (subjunctive*ɸeleti).[39]
Primary subjunctive formations in Proto-Celtic generally use thee-grade of the verb root, even if the present stem uses the zero-grade.
Imperative endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows:[19]: 147–148 [23]
| Person and number | Active endings | |
|---|---|---|
| Basic endings | With thematic vowels | |
| 2ndsg. | -∅,*-si | *-e |
| 3rdsg. | *-tou,*-tūd,*-tu | *-etou,*-etūd,*-etu |
| 1stpl. | *-mo(s) | *-omo(s) |
| 2ndpl. | *-te(s) | *-ete(s) |
| 3rdpl. | *-ntou,*-ntu | *-ontou,*-ontu |
The second-person singular imperative was generally endingless in the active; no ending was generally added to athematic verbs. On thematic-e/o- verbs, the imperative ended in thematic vowel*-e. However, there is also another second-person singular active imperative ending,-si, which was attached to the verb root athematically even with thematic strong verbs.[40]
The thematic deponent second-person singular imperative ending was*-eso. The-the in Old Irish is secondary.[41][19]: 140
The third-person imperative endings inInsular Celtic,Gaulish andCeltiberian have completely separate origins from each other. The Insular Celtic endings are derived from*-tou, *-ntou, Gaulish endings from*-tu, *-ntu, and the Celtiberian third-person imperative singular ending stems from*-tūd.[23]
Scholarly reconstructions[6][42][43][44] may be summarised in tabular format.[dubious –discuss]
| Person | Present | Imperfect | Future | Past | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Active | Medio- passive | Active | Medio- passive | Active | Medio- passive | Active | Medio- passive | ||
| Indicative | 1stsg. | *berū | *berūr | *beremam | — | *bibrāsū | *bibrāsūr | *bīram | — |
| 2ndsg. | *beresi | *beretar | *beretās | — | *bibrāsesi | *bibrāsetar | *birs | — | |
| 3rdsg. | *bereti | *beretor | *bereto | — | *bibrāseti | *bibrāsetor | *birt | ? | |
| 1stpl. | *beromosi | *beromor | *beremo | — | *bibrāsomosi | *bibrāsomor | *berme | — | |
| 2ndpl. | *beretesi | *beredwe | ? | — | *bibrāsete | *bibrāsedwe | *berte | — | |
| 3rdpl. | *beronti | *berontor | *berento | — | *bibrāsonti | *bibrāsontor | *berant | ? | |
| Subjunctive | 1stsg. | *berasū | *berasūr | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 2ndsg. | *berasesi | *berasetar | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 3rdsg. | *beraseti | *berasetor | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 1stpl. | *berasomosi | *berasomor | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 2ndpl. | *berasetesi | *berasedwe | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 3rdpl. | *berasonti | *berasontor | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Imperative | 2ndsg. | *bere | *bereso | — | — | — | — | — | — |
| 3rdsg. | *beretou | ? | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 1stpl. | *beromos | ? | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 2ndpl. | *berete | ? | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| 3rdpl. | *berontou | ? | — | — | — | — | — | — | |
| Participle | *beronts | *beromnos | — | — | — | — | *bertyos | *britos | |
The copula*esti was irregular. It had both athematic and thematic conjugations in the present tense. Schrijver supposes that its athematic present was used clause-initially and the thematic conjugation was used when that was not the case.[45]
| Person | Present | |
|---|---|---|
| Athematic | Thematic | |
| 1st sg. | *esmi | *esū |
| 2nd sg. | *esi | *esesi |
| 3rd sg. | *esti | *eseti |
| 1st pl. | *esmosi | *esomosi |
| 2nd pl. | **estes | *esetes |
| 3rd pl. | *senti | **esonti |
| Numeral | PIE | PC | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| M. | F. | N. | M. | F. | N. | |
| 1 | *h₁óynos | *h₁óyneh₂ | *h₁óynom | *oinos | *oinā | *oinom |
| 2 | *dwóh₁ | *dwéh₂h₁(e) | *dwóy(h₁) | *duwo | *dwei | *duwo |
| 3 | *tréyes | *tísres | *tríh₂ | *trīs | *tisres | *trī |
| 4 | *kʷetwóres | *kʷétesres | *kʷetwṓr | *kʷetwores | *kʷetesres | *kʷetwor? |
| 5 | *pénkʷe | *kʷenkʷe | ||||
| 6 | *swéḱs | *swexs | ||||
| 7 | *septḿ̥ | *seɸtam > *sextam | ||||
| 8 | *oḱtṓw | *oxtū | ||||
| 9 | *h₁néwn̥ | *nowan | ||||
| 10 | *déḱm̥ | *dekam | ||||
| 20 | *wídḱm̥ti | *wikantī | ||||
| 30 | *tridḱómt | *trīkontes | ||||
| 40 | *kʷétwr̥dḱomt | *kʷetrVkonts / *kʷetrVkontes | ||||
| 50 | *pénkʷedḱomt | *kʷenkʷekonts / *kʷenkʷekontes | ||||
| 60 | *swéḱsdḱomt | *swexskonts / *swexskontes | ||||
| 90 | *h₁néwn̥dḱomt | *naukontes | ||||
| 100 | *ḱm̥tóm | *kantom | ||||
The vast majority of reliably reconstructible lexical items in Proto-Celtic have goodIndo-European etymologies, unlike what is found in, for example, theGreek language—at least 90% according to Matasovic.[46] These include most of the items on theSwadesh list of basic vocabulary. But a few words that do not have Indo-European cognates, so may be borrowings from substrate or adstratePre-Indo-European languages, are also from basic vocabulary, including*bodyo- ‘yellow’ (though this has possible cognates in Italic),*kani "good," and*klukka "stone."[47] It is notable that fully 32 items have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic with the meaning "fight."[48]
(The following examples lack the dual plural and are conjugated in the present tense)
| Pronoun | PIE | PC |
|---|---|---|
| 1st Sg. | *bʰéroh₂ | *berū |
| 2nd Sg. | *bʰéresi | *beresi |
| 3rd Sg. | *bʰéreti | *bereti |
| 1st Pl. | *bʰéromos | *beromosi |
| 2nd Pl. | *bʰérete | *beretesi |
| 3rd Pl. | *bʰéronti | *beronti |
| Pronoun | PIE | PC |
|---|---|---|
| 1st Sg. | *h₁ésmi | *esmi |
| 2nd Sg. | *h₁ési | *esi |
| 3rd Sg. | *h₁ésti | *esti |
| 1st Pl. | *h₁smós | *esmosi |
| 2nd Pl. | *h₁sté | *estes |
| 3rd Pl. | *h₁sénti | *senti |
(The following examples lack the dual number)
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱos | *artos | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoes | *artoi |
| Voc. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱe | *arte | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoes | *artūs |
| Acc. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱom | *artom | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoms | *artoms |
| Gen. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱosyo | *artī | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoHom | *artom |
| Dat. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoey | *artūi | *h₂ŕ̥tḱomos | *artobos |
| Loc. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱey | *artei | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoysu | ? |
| Inst. | *h₂ŕ̥tḱoh₁ | *artū | *h₂ŕ̥tḱōys | *artūis |
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *ln̥dʰéh₂ | *landā | *ln̥dʰéh₂es | *landās |
| Voc. | *ln̥dʰéh₂ | *landā | *ln̥dʰéh₂es | *landās |
| Acc. | *ln̥dʰā́m | *landam | *ln̥dʰéh₂m̥s | *landāms |
| Gen. | *ln̥dʰéh₂s | *landās | *ln̥dʰéh₂oHom | *landom |
| Dat. | *ln̥dʰéh₂ey | *landāi | *ln̥dʰéh₂mos | *landābos |
| Loc. | *ln̥dʰéh₂i | *landai | *ln̥dʰéh₂su | ? |
| Inst. | *ln̥dʰéh₂h₁ | ? | *ln̥dʰéh₂mis | *landābis |
| Case | Singular | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *yugóm | *yugom | *yugéh₂ | *yugā |
| Voc. | *yugóm | *yugom | *yugéh₂ | *yugā |
| Acc. | *yugóm | *yugom | *yugéh₂ | *yugā |
| Gen. | *yugósyo | *yugī | *yugóHom | *yugom |
| Dat. | *yugóey | *yugūi | *yugómos | *yugobos |
| Loc. | *yugéy | *yugei | *yugóysu | ? |
| Inst. | *yugóh₁ | *yugū | *yugṓys | *yugūis |
(The following example lacks the dual number)
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *h₂ḱrós | *akros | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā | *h₂ḱróm | *akrom |
| Voc. | *h₂ḱré | *akre | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā | *h₂ḱróm | *akrom |
| Acc. | *h₂ḱróm | *akrom | *h₂ḱrā́m | *akram | *h₂ḱróm | *akrom |
| Gen. | *h₂ḱrósyo | *akrī | *h₂ḱréh₂s | *akrās | *h₂ḱrósyo | *akrī |
| Dat. | *h₂ḱróey | *akrūi | *h₂ḱréh₂ey | *akrai | *h₂ḱróey | *akrūi |
| Inst. | *h₂ḱróh₁ | *akrū | *h₂ḱréh₂h₁ | ? | *h₂ḱróh₁ | *akrū |
| Case | Masculine | Feminine | Neuter | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PIE | PC | PIE | PC | PIE | PC | |
| Nom. | *h₂ḱróes | *akroi | *h₂ḱréh₂es | *akrās | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā |
| Voc. | *h₂ḱróes | *akroi | *h₂ḱréh₂es | *akrās | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā |
| Acc. | *h₂ḱróms | *akroms | *h₂ḱréh₂m̥s | *akrams | *h₂ḱréh₂ | *akrā |
| Gen. | *h₂ḱróHom | *akrom | *h₂ḱréh₂oHom | *akrom | *h₂ḱróHom | *akrom |
| Dat. | *h₂ḱrómos | *akrobos | *h₂ḱréh₂mos | *akrābos | *h₂ḱrómos | *akrobis |
| Inst. | *h₂ḱrṓys | *akrobis | *h₂ḱréh₂mis | *akrābis | *h₂ḱrṓys | *akrobis |
| No. | Pronoun | PIE | PC |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sg. | 1st | *éǵ >*me [acc.] | *mī |
| 2nd | *túh₂ | *tū | |
| 3rd M. | *ís | *se | |
| 3rd F. | *seh₂ >*sih₂ [*só + *-ih₂] | *sī | |
| 3rd N. | *íd | *ed | |
| Pl. | 1st | *wéy >*nos [acc.] >*nēs | *snīs;*snīsnīs |
| 2nd | *yū́ >*wos [acc.] >*wēs | *swīs;*swīswīs | |
| 3rd | *éyes | *eyes |
Notes
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help){{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)Bibliography
{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
