Inreligion, aprophet orprophetess is an individual who is regarded as being in contact with adivine being and is said to speak on behalf of that being, serving as an intermediary with humanity by delivering messages or teachings from thesupernatural source to other people.[1][2] The message that the prophet conveys is called aprophecy.
The English wordprophet is thetransliteration of a compoundGreek word derived frompro (before/toward) andphesein (to tell); thus, aπροφήτης (prophḗtēs) is someone who conveys messages from the divine to humans, including occasionally foretelling future events. In a different interpretation, it meansadvocate orspeaker. It is used to translate the Hebrew word נָבִיא (nāvî) in the Septuagint and the Arabic word نبي (nabī).W.F. Albright points to the AkkadianNabu for the origin of these Hebrew (נָבִיא (nāvî) and the Arabic نبي (nabī) words.[3]
InHebrew, the word נָבִיא (nāvî), "spokesperson", traditionally translates as "prophet". The second subdivision of theTanakh,Nevi'im, is devoted to the Hebrew prophets. The meaning ofnavi is perhaps described inDeuteronomy 18:18,[7] whereGod said, "...and I will put My words in his mouth, and he shall speak unto them all that I shall command him." Thus, anavi was thought to be the "mouth" of God. A Jewish tradition was that the rootnun-bet-alef ("navi") is based on the two-letter root nun-bet which denotes hollowness or openness; to receive transcendental wisdom, one must make oneself "open".[8]
Late Assyrian seal. Worshipper betweenNabu andMarduk, standing on their servant dragonMušḫuššu, eighth century BCE.
Before the advent of Zoroastrianism and the prophetic tradition established by Zoroaster, various ancient civilizations had individuals who served as intermediaries between humanity and the divine. In ancientSumer, for instance, figures such as the "ensi" or "lugal" fulfilled roles akin to prophets, offering guidance and interpreting divine will through rituals, omens, and prayers. Theensi was considered a representative of the city-state's patron deity.[9] The functions of alugal would include certain ceremonial and cultic activities, arbitration in border disputes, and military defence against external enemies.[10][11] Theensis of Lagash would sometimes refer to the city's patron deity,Ningirsu, as theirlugal ("master"). All of the above is connected to the possibly priestly or sacral character of the titlesensi[12] and especiallyen (the latter term continuing to designate priests in subsequent times).
These prophets, while lacking the systematic theological framework found in later traditions, laid the groundwork for the concept of prophethood by demonstrating a connection with the divine and providing spiritual leadership within their communities. Despite the absence of codified scripture or organized religious institutions, these pre-Zoroastrian prophetic figures played a crucial role in shaping early religious thought and practices, paving the way for the structured prophetic tradition that emerged with Zoroaster and subsequent religious traditions.
Zoroastrianism holds a significant position in shaping the concept of prophets and prophecy. Founded by the revered figureZoroaster (or Zarathustra) in ancient Persia around the 6th century BCE, Zoroastrianism introduced fundamental ideas that profoundly influenced subsequent religious and philosophical traditions, particularly in its portrayal of prophetic figures.[13]
At the heart of Zoroastrian belief lies the concept of a singular supreme deity,Ahura Mazda, engaged in an eternal struggle against the forces of darkness and chaos, embodied byAngra Mainyu. Zoroaster, as the primary prophet of this faith, received divine revelations and visions from Ahura Mazda, which formed the basis of theAvesta, the sacred scripture of Zoroastrianism.[14]
Zoroaster's role as a prophet established a template for future religious leaders and visionaries. He articulated monotheistic principles,ethical dualism, and the idea of a cosmic battle between good and evil, influencing not only the religious landscape ofancient Persia but also later traditions such asJudaism,Christianity,Islam, andThelema.[15]
The legacy of Zoroastrianism in shaping the understanding of prophets is profound. Zoroaster's direct communication with the divine, his role as a mediator between humanity and the divine will, and his teachings about moral righteousness laid the groundwork for the concept of prophethood as it evolved in subsequent religious traditions.[16]
Influence from Zoroastrian thought can be seen in the characterization of prophets as individuals chosen by a single supreme deity to convey divine messages, guide communities, and uphold moral principles. The structured prophetic tradition established by Zoroaster set a precedent for future prophets, shaping how societies perceive and interact with visionary figures throughout history.[17]
While other ancient civilizations may have had individuals who served similar functions, Zoroastrianism's systematic approach to prophecy and its enduring influence on subsequent religious thought solidified its place in history as a foundational example of prophetic tradition, enriching humanity's understanding of the divine and the role of prophets in conveying its will.[16]
Malachi, one of the last prophets of Israel, painting by Duccio di Buoninsegna, c. 1310 (Museo dell'Opera del Duomo,Siena Cathedral)."He [Mashiach] will turn the hearts of the parents to their children, and the hearts of the children to their parents" (Malachi 4:6)[18]
Some examples of prophets in theTanakh includeAbraham,Moses,Miriam, Isaiah,Samuel,Ezekiel,Malachi, andJob. Moses is considered the most importantprophet in Judaism.[19][20] On one occasion duringthe Exodus journey, "the spirit which was upon Moses" was passed to seventy elders, who were also able to prophesy for one time only, but mostly they could not prophesy again.[21] Moses expressed the hope that "all the LORD's people" could be prophets.[22] In addition to writing and speaking messages from God,Israelite orJudeannevi'im ("spokespersons", "prophets") often acted out propheticparables in their life.[23] For example, in order to contrast the people's disobedience with the obedience of theRechabites, God hasJeremiah invite the Rechabites to drink wine, in disobedience to their ancestor's command. The Rechabites refuse, for which God commends them.[24][25] Other prophetic parables acted out by Jeremiah include burying a linen belt so that it gets ruined to illustrate how God intends to ruin Judah's pride.[26][27][28] Likewise, Jeremiah buys a clay jar and smashes it in theValley of Ben Hinnom in front of elders and priests to illustrate that God will smash thenation of Judah and the city of Judah beyond repair.[29] God instructs Jeremiah to make a yoke from wood and leather straps and to put it on his own neck to demonstrate how God will put the nation under the yoke ofNebuchadnezzar, king ofBabylon.[30] In a similar way, the prophetIsaiah had to walk stripped and barefoot for three years to illustrate the coming captivity,[31] and the prophetEzekiel had to lie on his side for 390 days and to eat measured food to illustrate the coming siege.[32]
Prophetic assignment is usually portrayed as rigorous and exacting in the Hebrew Bible,[33][34][35] and prophets were often the target of persecution and opposition.[36] God's personal prediction for Jeremiah, "And they shall fight against thee; but they shall not prevail against thee,"[37] was performed many times in thebiblical narrative as Jeremiah warned of destruction of those who continued to refuse repentance and accept more moderate consequences.[36][38] In return for his adherence to God's discipline and speaking God's words, Jeremiah was attacked by his own brothers,[39] beaten and put into the stocks by a priest andfalse prophet,[40][41] imprisoned by the king,[42] threatened with death,[43] thrown into a cistern by Judah's officials,[44] and opposed by a false prophet.[45] Likewise, Isaiah was told by his hearers who rejected his message, "Leave the way! Get off the path! Let us hear no more about theHoly One of Israel!"[34][46] The life of Moses being threatened byPharaoh is another example.[47]
According to ISamuel 9:9,[48] the old name for navi isro'eh, רֹאֶה, which literally means "seer". That could document an ancient shift, from viewing prophets as seers for hire to viewing them as moral teachers. L. C. Allen (1971) comments that in theFirst Temple Era, there were essentially seer-priests belonging to a guild, who performeddivination, rituals, and sacrifices, and were scribes; and beside these were canonical prophets, who did none of these things (and condemned divination), but came to deliver a message.[49] The seer-priests were usually attached to a local shrine or temple, such asShiloh, and initiated others into that priesthood, acting as a mysticalcraft-guild with apprentices and recruitment. Canonical prophets were not organised this way.
Jewish tradition - unlike Christian and Islamic practice - does not regardDaniel as a prophet.
A Jewish tradition suggests that there were twice as many prophets as the number which left Egypt, which would make 1,200,000 prophets.[50] TheTalmud recognizes48 male prophets who bequeathed permanent messages to humankind.[50] According to the Talmud, there were also seven women counted as prophetesses whose message bears relevance for all generations:Sarah,Miriam,Devorah,Hannah (mother of the prophet Samuel),Abigail (a wife ofKing David),Huldah (from the time of Jeremiah), andEsther.[50] The Talmudic and Biblical commentatorRashi points out thatRebecca,Rachel, andLeah were also prophets.[51]Isaiah 8:3-4[52] refers to Isaiah's wife, who bore his sonMaher-shalal-hash-baz as "the prophetess"; she is not referred to elsewhere.
Prophets in the Tanakh are not always Jews;[50]note for example the non-Jewish prophetBalaam inNumbers 22.[53] According to the Talmud,Obadiah is said to have been a convert to Judaism.
InChristianity, a prophet (or seer) is one inspired by God through theHoly Spirit to deliver a message. This includes Jewish prophets active before the church began and the prophets active in the Christian church. SomeChristian denominations limit a prophet's message to words intended only for active members of a congregation, excluding social or political messages. However, theBible has several occasions in which prophets were called to deliver social or political messages.[54] The reception of a message is termedrevelation and the delivery of the message is termed prophecy.
The term "prophet" applies to those who receive public orprivate revelation. Public revelation, in Catholicism, is part of theDeposit of faith, the revelation of which was completed by Jesus; whereas private revelation does not add to the Deposit. The term "deposit of faith" refers to the entirety of Jesus Christ's revelation, and is passed to successive generations through scripture and the traditions of the church.
The Bible applies the appellation 'false prophet' to anyone who preaches a Gospel contrary to that delivered to the apostles and recorded in Sacred Scripture.[55] OneOld Testament text inDeuteronomy[56] contains a warning against those who prophesy events which do not come to pass and says they should be put to death. Elsewhere a false prophet may be someone who is purposely trying to deceive, is delusional, under the influence ofSatan or is speaking from his own spirit.[57]
Catholicism
Six of theMinor Prophets are commemorated in December. Each encouraged people to return to God, to repent of past sins, and to recognize God's presence even in their difficulties.[58]
"Jesus Christ is the one whom the Father anointed with the Holy Spirit and established as priest, prophet, and king. The whole People of God participates in these three offices of Christ and bears the responsibilities for mission and service that flow from them."[59] The laity act prophetically when they speak the truth, and live the Gospel by example before their families, neighbors, and co-workers.[60] The Old Testament prophets defended the poor and powerless "and inspire Catholic Social Teaching on the preferential option for the poor, workers’ rights, and justice and peace."[61]
Christians who believe that theHoly Spirit continues to givespiritual gifts to Christians are known ascontinuationists.[62][63] These charismata may include prophecy,tongues,miraculous healing ability, and discernment (Matthew 12:32 KJV "Whosoever speaketh a word against the Son of Man, it shall be forgiven him: but whosoever speaketh against the Holy Ghost, it shall not be forgiven him, neither in this world, neither in the world to come.").[63]Cessationists believe that these gifts were given only in New Testament times and that they ceased after the lastapostle died.[63]
TheDidache gives extensive instruction in how to distinguish between true and false prophets, as well as commands regarding tithes to prophets in the church.[70]Irenaeus, wrote of 2nd-century believers with the gift of prophecy,[71] whileJustin Martyr argued in hisDialogue with Trypho that prophets were not found among the Jews in his time, but that the church had prophets.[72]The Shepherd of Hermas describes revelation in a vision regarding the proper operation of prophecy in the church.[73]Eusebius mentions thatQuadratus andAmmia of Philadelphia were both prominent prophets following the age of the Twelve Apostles.[74][75]Tertullian, writing of the church meetings of theMontanists (to whom he belonged), described in detail the practice of prophecy in the 2nd-century church.[76]
A number of later Christian saints were said to have powers of prophecy, such asColumba of Iona (521–597),Saint Malachy (1094–1148) orPadre Pio (1887–1968).[77]Marian apparitions like those atFatima in 1917 or atKibeho in Rwanda in the 1980s often included prophetic predictions regarding the future of the world as well as of the local areas they occurred in.[78]
Prophetic movements in particular can be traced throughout the Christian Church's history, expressing themselves in (for example)Montanism,Novatianism,Donatism,Franciscanism,Anabaptism,Camisard enthusiasm,Puritanism,Quakerism,Quietism,Lutheranism[79] andRadical Pietism. Modern Pentecostals and Charismatics, members of movements which together comprised approximately 584 million people as of 2011[update],[80] believe in the contemporary function of the gift of prophecy, and some in these movements, especially those within theApostolic-Prophetic Movement, allow for idea that God may continue to gift the church with some individuals who are prophets.
Some Christian sects recognize the existence of "modern-day" prophets. One such denomination isthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which teaches that God still communicates with humankind through prophecy.[81]
Sealstone of Mani, rock crystal, possibly 3rd century AD, Iraq.Cabinet des Médailles, Paris.[82][83] The seal reads"Mani, messenger of the messiah", and may have been used by Mani himself to sign his epistles.[84]
Manichaeism was quickly successful and spread far throughAramaic-speaking regions.[92] It thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as theHan dynasty and as far west as theRoman Empire.[93] It was briefly the main rival toearly Christianity in the competition to replace classicalpolytheism before thespread of Islam. Under the RomanDominate, Manichaeism was persecuted by the Roman state and was eventually stamped out in the Roman Empire.[94] While most of Manichaeism's original writings have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.[95]
Manichaeism has survived longer in the east than it did in the west. Although it was thought to have finally faded away after the 14th century inSouth China,[96] contemporary to the decline of theChurch of the East inMing China, there is a growing corpus of evidence that shows Manichaeism persists in some areas of China, especially inFujian,[97][98] where numerous Manichaean relics have been discovered over time. The currently known sects are notably secretive and protective of their belief system, in an effort to remain undetected. This stems from fears relating to persecution and suppression during various periods of Chinese history.[99]
Although only twenty-five prophets[100] arementioned by name in the Quran, ahadith (no. 21257 inMusnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal)[101] mentions that there were (more or less) 124,000 prophets in total throughout history. Other traditions place the number of prophets at 224,000.[citation needed] The Quran says that God has sent a prophet to every group of people throughout time and that Muhammad is the last of the prophets, sent for the whole of humankind.[102] The message of all the prophets is believed to be the same. In Islam, all prophetic messengers are prophets (such asAdam,Noah,Abraham,Moses,Jesus, andMuhammad) though not all prophets are prophetic messengers. The primary distinction is that a prophet is required to demonstrate God's law through his actions, character, and behavior without necessarily calling people to follow him, while a prophetic messenger is required to pronounce God's law (i.e. revelation) and call his people to submit and follow him. Muhammad is distinguished from the rest of the prophetic messengers and prophets in that God commissioned him to be the prophetic messenger to all of humankind. Many of these prophets are also found in the texts of Judaism (The Torah, the Prophets, and the Writings) and Christianity.[103]
Muslims often refer to Muhammad as "the Prophet", in the form of a noun.[104][105][106][107] Jesus is the result of avirgin birth in Islam as in Christianity, and is regarded as a prophet.[108]
Although it offers many incidents from the lives of many prophets, the Quran focuses with special narrative and rhetorical emphasis on the careers of the first four of these five major prophets.[who?]Of all the figures before Muhammad, the significance of Jesus in Islam is reflected in his being mentioned in theQuran in 93verses with various titles attached such as "Son ofMary" and other relational terms, mentioned directly and indirectly, over 187 times.[109][110] He is thusthe most mentioned person in the Quran by reference; 25 times by the name Isa, third-person 48 times, first-person 35 times, and the rest as titles and attributes.[111] Moses (Musa) and Abraham (Ibrahim) are also referred to frequently in the Quran. As for the fifth, theQuran is frequently addressed directly to Muhammad, and it often discusses situations encountered by him. Direct use of his name in the text, however, is rare. Rarer still is the mention of Muhammad's contemporaries.
Several prominent exponents of theFatimidIsmailiImams explained that throughout history there have been six enunciators (natiqs) who brought the exoteric (zahir) revelation to humans, namely:Adam,Noah,Abraham,Moses,Jesus andMuhammad. They speak of a seventh enunciator (natiq), the Resurrector (Qa’im), who will unveil the esoteric (batin) meaning of all the previous revelations. He is believed to be the pinnacle and purpose of creation. The enunciators (sing.natiq) who are the Prophets and theImams in their respective times, are the highest hierarch (hadd). The enunciators (natiqs) signal the beginning of a new age (dawr) in humankind, whereas theImams unveil and present the esoteric (batin) meaning of the revelation to the people. These individuals are both known as the ‘Lord of the Age’ (sahib al-’asr) or the ‘Lord of the Time’ (sahib al-zaman). Through them, one can know God, and their invitation to humans to recognize God is called the invitation (da’wa).[112]
According toShia Islam, all Prophets andImams areinfallible and the belief in their abstinence from intentional and unintentional sins is a part of the creed. Thus, it is accordingly believed that they are the examples to be followed and that they act as they preach. This belief includes someʾAwliyāʾ such asLady Fatima andLady Mary.
Ahmadi thought emphasizes the belief that Islam is the final dispensation for humanity as revealed to Muhammad and the necessity of restoring it to its true intent and pristine form, which had been lost through the centuries.[115] Its adherents consider Ahmad to have appeared as the Mahdi—bearing the qualities ofJesus in accordance with their reading of scriptural prophecies—to revitalize Islam and set in motion its moral system that would bring about lasting peace.[116][117][118] They believe that upon divine guidance he purged Islam of foreign accretions in belief and practice by championing what is, in their view, Islam's original precepts as practised by Muhammad and theearly Muslim community.[119] Ahmadis thus view themselves as leading the propagation and renaissance of Islam.[115][120]
Druze faith
In theDruze faith, seven spokesmen or prophets are considered and revered as messengers or intermediaries between God and mankind. These prophets includeAdam,Noah,Abraham,Moses,Jesus,Muhammad andMuhammad ibn Isma'il. Each of them was sent in a different period of history to preach the message of God.[121][122][123]
The Druze believe that each spokesman or prophet (natiq) has a "foundation" or "guardian" who is responsible for the esoteric, interpretative law, while the spokesman or prophet himself presents the apparent,obligatory law.[124] The first prophet was Adam, whose foundation wasSeth, although Adam did not have a mandate to introduce a law. Noah followed with anew law, superseding Adam's teachings, and his foundation wasShem. Then came Abraham, withIshmael as his foundation, andMoses, whose foundation wasJoshua son ofNun afterAaron's death. Jesus followed, withSimon Peter as his foundation, and finally, Muhammad, withAli ibn Abi Talib as his foundation.[124] The last figure isAbd Allah al-Mahdi Billah, the founder of theFatimid Caliphate, whose foundation was al-Qaddah. WithHamza ibn Ali, the prophet ofal-Hakim, a new era began, introducing a new law called the "Law of Tawhid" (Unification) or the "Third Path," which superseded all previous laws. Hamza ibn Ali was assisted by four boundaries mentioned in their tradition.[124]
TheBaháʼí Faith refers to what are commonly called prophets as "Manifestations of God" who are directly linked with the concept ofprogressive revelation. Baháʼís believe that the will of God is expressed at all times and in many ways, including through a series of divine messengers referred to as "Manifestations of God" or "divine educators".[125] In expressing God's intent, these Manifestations are seen to establish religion in the world. Thus they are seen as an intermediary between God and humanity.[126]
The Manifestations of God are not seen as incarnations of God, and are also not seen as ordinary mortals. Instead, the Baháʼí concept of the Manifestation of God emphasizes simultaneously the humanity of that intermediary and the divinity in the way they show forth the will, knowledge and attributes of God; thus they have both human and divine stations.[126]
In addition to the Manifestations of God, there are also minor prophets. While the Manifestations of God, or major prophets, are compared to the Sun (which produces its own heat and light), minor prophets are compared to the Moon (which receives its light from the sun). Moses, for example, is taught as having been a Manifestation of God and his brother Aaron a minor prophet. Moses spoke on behalf of God, and Aaron spoke on behalf of Moses (Exodus 4:14–17).[127] Other Jewish prophets are considered minor prophets, as they are considered to have come in the shadow of the dispensation of Moses to develop and consolidate the process he set in motion.
From 1805 until theBattle of Tippecanoe that falsified his predictions in 1811, the "Shawnee prophet"Tenskwatawa led an Indian alliance to stop Europeans from taking more and more land going west. He reportedvisions he had. He is said to have accurately predicted asolar eclipse. His brotherTecumseh re-established the alliance forTecumseh's War, that ended with the latter's death in 1813. Tecumseh fought together with British forces that, in the area of theGreat Lakes, occupied essentially today's territory ofCanada.
Francis the Prophet, influenced by Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa, was a leader of theRed Stick faction of theCreek Indians. He traveled to England in 1815 as a representative of the "four Indian nations" in an unsuccessful attempt to get Great Britain to help them resist the expansionism of the white settlers.
20 years later (1832),Wabokieshiek, the "Winnebago Prophet", after whomProphetstown has been named, (also called "White Cloud") said that British forces would support the Indians in theBlack Hawk War against the United States as 20 years earlier (based on "visions"). They did not, and he was no longer considered a "prophet".
In 1869, thePaiuteWodziwob founded theGhost Dance movement. The dance rituals were an occasion to announce his visions of an earthquake that would swallow the whites. He seems to have died in 1872.
TheNorthern PaiuteWovoka said he had a vision during thesolar eclipse of January 1, 1889, that the Paiute dead would come back and the whites would vanish from America, provided the natives performedGhost Dances. This idea spread among other Native American peoples. The government were worried about a rebellion and sent troops, which lead to the death ofSitting Bull and to theWounded Knee massacre in 1890.
Aleister Crowley (1875–1947) was an Englishoccultist, philosopher,ceremonial magician, poet, painter, novelist andmountaineer. He founded the religion ofThelema, identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into theÆon of Horus in the early 20th century. A prolific writer, he published widely over the course of his life.
According to Crowley's later statements, on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice identifying itself as that ofAiwass, the messenger of Horus, orHoor-Paar-Kraat. Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days, and titled itLiber AL vel Legis orThe Book of the Law.[128] The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a newAeon, and that Crowley would serve as its prophet. It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law," and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will. This book, and the philosophy that it espoused, became the cornerstone of Crowley's religion,Thelema.[129]
In 1924, Crowley traveled toTunisia for a magical retreat inNefta, where he also wroteTo Man (1924), a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity.[130] Crowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity's entry to the Aeon of Horus, a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny. He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris, in which paternalistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism dominated the world, and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis, which was maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship.[131] He believed that Thelema was the proper religion of the Aeon of Horus,[132] and also deemed himself to be the prophet of this new Aeon.[133]
Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their ownTrue Will that they should discover and pursue, and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe.[134] Crowley referred to this process of searching and discovery of one's True Will to be "theGreat Work" or the attaining of the "knowledge and conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel".[135] His favoured method of doing so was through the performance of the Abramelin operation, a ceremonial magic ritual obtained from a 17th-century grimoire.[136] The moral code of "Do What Thou Wilt" is believed by Thelemites to be the religion's ethical law, although the historian of religion Marco Pasi noted that this was notanarchistic orlibertarian in structure, as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism.[137]
Commentators who suggest escalating crisis are often calledprophets of doom.[139][140]
Scientists analyzing data to forecast future events can also be considered prophets in a secular sense. In 2020,Ann Druyan stated that, "The only prophets that I’m really impressed by are the climate scientists of the past seventy years." She included her late husband,Carl Sagan, among the modern-day prophets, with the disclaimer that "[a] lot of the things that he speculated about haven’t turned out to be true, but all those people are human. They were just using their knowledge and their intelligence to make good guesses."[141]
^Richter, Thomas (2006)."Nabû".Brill’s New Pauly. Brill. Retrieved2022-10-14.
^"Semitic Roots Appendix".The American Heritage Dictionary. Retrieved6 December 2019.nbʾ To name, proclaim, summon."
^p.1571, Alcalay. An alternative translation of this Hebrew word is derived from an Akkadian word "Nabu," meaning to call. The Hebrew "Navi" has a passive sense and means "the one who has been called" (see HALOT, p.661).
^Westenholz, Aage (2002). Hansen, Morgens Herman (ed.). "The Sumerian city-state: A comparative study of six city-state cultures: an investigation conducted by the Copenhagen Polis Center".Historisk-filosofiske Skrifter (27). Copenhagen: C.A. Reitzels Forlag, 23-42.:34–35.
^Plamen Rusev, Mesalim, Lugal Na Kish: Politicheska Istoriia Na Ranen Shumer (XXVIII-XXVI V. Pr. N. E.), Faber, 2001 (in Bulgarian) Mesalim, Lugal of Kish. Political History of Early Sumer (XXVIII–XXVI century BC.)
^Glassner, Jean-Jacques, 2000: Les petits etats Mésopotamiens à la fin du 4e et au cours du 3e millénaire. In: Hansen, Mogens Herman (ed.) A Comparative Study of Thirty City-State Cultures. The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters, Copenhagen., P.48
^Levitin, Dmitri (2015).Ancient Wisdom in the Age of the New Science: Histories of Philosophy in England, C. 1640-1700. Cambridge University Press.ISBN978-1107105881.
^cf. “If anyone comes to me and does not hate father and mother, wife and children, brothers and sisters—yes, even their own life—such a person cannot be my [Christ] disciple.” (Luke 14:26)
^Discussed more recently in Morris Silver,Prophets and Markets: The Political Economy of Ancient Israel (Dordrecht NL: Springer Science and Business Media, 2013), 154-75.ISBN9789400974180
^Nei, Briana (25 January 2019).Revealed in Ephesians: The Mystery of Who I Am in Christ. WestBow Press.ISBN978-1-9736-4773-7.Anyone who contradicts scripture, preaches another gospel or denies the divinity of Christ is a false prophet. Paul said, "But even if we or an angel from heaven should preach a gospel other than the one we preached to you ...
^abcDawson, Steve; Hornbacher, Mark (10 April 2019).Ordinary Christians, Extraordinary Signs: Healing in Evangelization. The Word Among Us Press.ISBN978-1-59325-007-2.The Catholic Church is "continuationist," rather than "cessationist." What does that mean? Cessationism is the belief that the signs and wonders of the New Testament Church—the extraordinary spiritual gifts (charisms) like tongues, prophecy, or healing—were only intended for a time and ceased to be present in the Church after that period of time had elapsed. Continuationism, on the other hand, is the belief that the signs and wonders of the early Church have continued.
^John F. MacArthur (1 March 2006).John 1-11 MacArthur New Testament Commentary. Moody Publishers. p. 124.ISBN978-0-8024-8044-6.John the Baptist was the last prophet under the old covenant (Luke 16:16); Jesus came as the mediator of the new covenant (Heb. 8:6; 12:24), which He ratified by His sacrificial death (Luke 22:20; 1 Cor. 11:25).
^Henning, W.B.,The Book of Giants, BSOAS, Vol. XI, Part 1, 1943, pp. 52–74: "...Mani, who was brought up and spent most of his life in a province of the Persian empire, and whose mother belonged to a famous Parthian family, did not make any use of the Iranian mythological tradition. There can no longer be any doubt that the Iranian names of Sām, Narīmān, etc., that appear in the Persian and Sogdian versions of the Book of the Giants, did not figure in the original edition, written by Mani in the Syriac language."
^Widengren, GeoMesopotamian elements in Manichaeism (King and Saviour II): Studies in Manichaean, Mandaean, and Syrian-gnostic religion, Lundequistska bokhandeln, 1946.
^Hopkins, Keith (July 2001).A World Full of Gods: The Strange Triumph of Christianity. New York:Plume. pp. 246, 263, 270.ISBN0-452-28261-6.OCLC47286228.
^Beyond the Written Word: Oral Aspects of Scripture in the History of Religion, William A. Graham, William Albert Graham – 1993, p93
^The militia – Page 100, James B. Whisker – 1992 "The work of Mohammed (569–632), commonly called the Prophet, the Koran was revealed in a series of visions over a period of many years beginning in 610"
^Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz’ 26 (Part 26): Al-Ahqaf 1 To Az-Zariyat 30, Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman – 2009
^Friedmann, Yohanan (2003).Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and Its Medieval Background. Oxford University Press. pp. 116–17, 121.ISBN965-264-014-X.
^Khan, Adil Hussain (2015).From Sufism to Ahmadiyya: A Muslim minority movement in south Asia. Indiana University Press. pp. 2,42–48.ISBN978-0253015297.
^Louis J., Hammann (1985)."Ahmaddiyyat - an introduction". Ahmadiyya Muslim Community [online].Archived from the original on 11 June 2016. Retrieved27 February 2018.
^Hitti, Philip K. (1928).The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings. Library of Alexandria. p. 37.ISBN9781465546623.{{cite book}}:ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
^Dana, Nissim (2008).The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Michigan University press. p. 17.ISBN9781903900369.
^Hutter, Manfred (2005)."Bahā'īs". In Ed. Lindsay Jones (ed.).Encyclopedia of Religion. Vol. 2 (2nd ed.). Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA. pp. 737–740.ISBN0-02-865733-0.
Djurdjevic, Gordan (2014).India and the Occult: The Influence of South Asian Spirituality on Modern Western Occultism. New York City: Palgrave Macmillan.ISBN978-1-137-40498-5.OCLC870285576.
Drury, Nevill (2012). "The Thelemic Sex Magick of Aleister Crowley". In Drury, Nevill (ed.).Pathways in Modern Western Magic. Richmond, CA: Concrescent Scholars. pp. 205–245.ISBN978-0-9843729-9-7.OCLC814283519.
Kaczynski, Richard (2010).Perdurabo: The Life of Aleister Crowley (Revised and Expanded ed.). Berkeley, California: North Atlantic Books.ISBN978-1-55643-899-8.
Kriwaczek, Paul (2003).In Search of Zarathustra: The First Prophet and the Ideas that Changed the World. Knopf.ISBN978-0375415289.
Pasi, Marco (2014) [1999].Aleister Crowley and the Temptation of Politics. Ariel Godwin (translator). Durham: Acumen.ISBN978-1-84465-696-7.OCLC872678868.
Forbes, Christopher (1997).Prophecy and Inspired Speech: in Early Christianity and Its Hellenistic Environment. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson.ISBN1-56563-269-9.
Hill, Clifford S. (1991).Prophecy, Past and Present: an Exploration of the Prophetic Ministry in the Bible and the Church today. Ann Arbor, Mich.: Vine.ISBN0-8028-0635-X.
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