The use of pronouns often involvesanaphora, where the meaning of the pronoun is dependent on anantecedent. For example, in the sentenceThat poor man looks as if he needs a new coat, the meaning of the pronounhe is dependent on its antecedent,that poor man.
Theadjective form of the word "pronoun" is "pronominal".[A] A pronominal is also a word or phrase that acts as a pronoun. For example, inThat's not the one I wanted, the phrasethe one (containing theprop-wordone) is a pronominal.[3]
Theory
Pronoun versus pro-form
Pronoun is a category of words. Apro-form is a type offunction word or expression that stands in for (expresses the same content as) anotherword,phrase,clause orsentence where themeaning is recoverable from the context.[4] In English, pronouns mostly function as pro-forms, but there are pronouns that are not pro-forms and pro-forms that are not pronouns.[5][p. 239]
Pronouns versus Pro-forms
Example
Pronoun
Pro-form
1
It is a good idea.
✓
✓
2
I know the peoplewho work there.
✓
✓
3
Who works there?
✓
4
It is raining.
✓
5
I asked her to help, and shedid so right away.
✓
6
JJ and Petra helped, butthe others didn't.
✓
Examples [1 & 2] are pronouns and pro-forms. In [1], the pronounit "stands in" for whatever was mentioned and is a good idea. In [2], therelative pronounwho stands in for "the people".
Examples [3 & 4] are pronouns but not pro-forms. In [3], theinterrogative pronounwho does not stand in for anything. Similarly, in [4],it is adummy pronoun, one that does not stand in for anything. No other word can function there with the same meaning; we do not say "the sky is raining" or "the weather is raining".
A prop-word is a word with little or no semantic content used where grammar dictates a certain sentence member, e.g., to provide a "support" on which to hang a modifier. The word most commonly considered as a prop-word in English isone (with the plural formones). The prop-wordone takes the place of a countable noun in a noun phrase (or determiner phrase), normally in a context where it is clear which noun it is replacing. For example, in a context in which hats are being talked about,the red one means "the red hat", andthe ones we bought means "the hats we bought". The prop-word thus functions somewhat similarly to a pronoun, except that a pronoun usually takes the place of a whole noun (determiner) phrase (for example, "the red hat" may be replaced by the pronoun "it".)
Finally, in [5 & 6], there are pro-forms that are not pronouns. In [5],did so is averb phrase that stands in for "helped" (apro-verb), inflected fromto help stated earlier in the sentence. Similarly, in [6],others is acommon noun, not a pronoun, butthe others probably stands in for the names of other people involved (e.g.,Sho, Alana, and Ali), allproper nouns.
Grammar
Pronouns (antōnymía) are listed as one ofeight parts of speech inThe Art of Grammar, a treatise on Greek grammar attributed toDionysius Thrax and dating from the 2nd century BC. The pronoun is described there as "a part of speech substitutable for a noun and marked for a person." Pronouns continued to be regarded as a part of speech inLatin grammar (the Latin term beingpronomen, from which the English name – throughMiddle French – ultimately derives), and thus in the European tradition generally.
Because of the many different syntactic roles that they play, pronouns are less likely to be a singleword class in more modern approaches to grammar.[6]
Linguistics
Examples of "our" as a determiner or a noun
Linguists in particular have trouble classifying pronouns in a single category, and some do not agree that pronouns substitute nouns or noun categories.[1] Certain types of pronouns are often identical or similar in form todeterminers with related meaning; some English examples are given in the table.
This observation has led some linguists, such asPaul Postal, to regard pronouns as determiners that have had their following noun or noun phrase deleted.[7] (Such patterning can even be claimed for certain personal pronouns; for example,we andyou might be analyzed as determiners in phrases likewe Brits andyou tennis players.) Other linguists have taken a similar view, uniting pronouns and determiners into a single class, sometimes called "determiner-pronoun", or regarding determiners as a subclass of pronouns or vice versa. The distinction may be considered to be one ofsubcategorization orvalency, rather like the distinction betweentransitive and intransitive verbs – determiners take a noun phrasecomplement like transitive verbs do, while pronouns do not.[8] This is consistent with thedeterminer phrase viewpoint, whereby a determiner, rather than the noun that follows it, is taken to be thehead of the phrase. Cross-linguistically, it seems as though pronouns share 3 distinct categories: point of view, person, and number. The breadth of each subcategory however tends to differ among languages.[9]
Binding theory and antecedents
The use of pronouns often involvesanaphora, where the meaning of the pronoun is dependent on another referential element. Thereferent of the pronoun is often the same as that of a preceding (or sometimes following) noun phrase, called theantecedent of the pronoun. The grammatical behavior of certain types of pronouns, and in particular their possible relationship with their antecedents, has been the focus of studies inbinding, notably in the Chomskyangovernment and binding theory. In this binding context, reflexive and reciprocal pronouns in English (such ashimself andeach other) are referred to asanaphors (in a specialized restricted sense) rather than as pronominal elements. Under binding theory, specific principles apply to different sets of pronouns.
Example reflexive structure. Since "himself" is immediately dominated by "John", Principle A is satisfied.
In English, reflexive and reciprocal pronouns must adhere toPrinciple A: an anaphor (reflexive or reciprocal, such as "each other") must be bound in its governing category (roughly, the clause). Therefore, in syntactic structure it must be lower in structure (it must have anantecedent) and have a direct relationship with its referent. This is called aC-command relationship. For instance, we see thatJohn cut himself is grammatical, butHimself cut John is not, despite having identical arguments, sincehimself, the reflexive, must be lower in structure to John, its referent. Additionally, we see examples likeJohn said that Mary cut himself are not grammatical because there is an intermediary noun,Mary, that disallows the two referents from having a direct relationship.
Example pronoun structure. Since "him" is immediately dominated by "John", Principle B is violated.
On the other hand, personal pronouns (such ashim orthem) must adhere toPrinciple B: a pronoun must be free (i.e., not bound) within its governing category (roughly, the clause). This means that although the pronouns can have a referent, they cannot have a direct relationship with the referent where the referent selects the pronoun. For instance,John said Mary cut him is grammatical because the two co-referents,John andhim are separated structurally byMary. This is why a sentence likeJohn cut him wherehim refers toJohn is ungrammatical.
The type of binding that applies to subsets of pronouns varies cross-linguistically. For instance, in German linguistics, pronouns can be split into two distinct categories — personal pronouns and d-pronouns. Although personal pronouns act identically to English personal pronouns (i.e. follow Principle B), d-pronouns follow yet another principle, Principle C, and function similarly to nouns in that they cannot have a direct relationship to an antecedent.[9]
Antecedents
The following sentences give examples of particular types of pronouns used with antecedents:
Third-person personal pronouns:
That poor man looks as ifhe needs a new coat. (the noun phrasethat poor man is the antecedent ofhe)
Julia arrived yesterday. I mether at the station. (Julia is the antecedent ofher)
Whenthey saw us,the lions began roaring (the lions is the antecedent ofthey; as it comes after the pronoun it may be called apostcedent)
Other personal pronouns in some circumstances:
Terry and I were hoping no one would findus. (Terry and I is the antecedent ofus)
You and Alice can come ifyou like. (you and Alice is the antecedent of the second – plural –you)
Reflexive and reciprocal pronouns:
Jack hurthimself. (Jack is the antecedent ofhimself)
We were teasingeach other. (we is the antecedent ofeach other)
Relative pronouns:
The woman who looked at you is my sister. (the woman is the antecedent ofwho)
Some other types, such asindefinite pronouns, are usually used without antecedents. Relative pronouns are used without antecedents infree relative clauses. Even third-person personal pronouns are sometimes used without antecedents ("unprecursed") – this applies to special uses such asdummy pronouns andgenericthey, as well as cases where the referent is implied by the context.
English pronouns have often traditionally been classified as different from nouns, but at least one modern grammar defines them as a subclass of nouns.[10]: 33–42
English personal pronouns have a number of different syntactic contexts (Subject, Object, Possessive, Reflexive) and many features:
person (1st, 2nd, 3rd);
number (singular, plural);
gender (masculine, feminine, neuter or inanimate, epicene)
Personal pronouns may be classified byperson,number,gender andcase. English has three persons (first, second and third) and two numbers (singular and plural); in the third person singular there are also distinct pronoun forms for male, female and neuter gender.[2]: 52–53 Principal forms are shown in the adjacent table.
English personal pronouns have two cases,subject andobject.Subject pronouns are used insubject position (I like to eat chips, butshe does not).Object pronouns are used for theobject of a verb orpreposition (John likesme but nother).[2]: 52–53
Other distinct forms found in some languages include:
Intensive (emphatic) pronouns, which re-emphasize a noun or pronoun that has already been mentioned. English uses the same forms as the reflexive pronouns; for example:I did itmyself (contrast reflexive use,I did it to myself).
Direct and indirect object pronouns, such asle andlui inFrench. English uses the same form for both; for example:Mary loveshim (direct object);Mary senthim a letter (indirect object).
Disjunctive pronouns, used in isolation or in certain other special grammatical contexts, likemoi in French. No distinct forms exist in English; for example:Who does this belong to?Me.
Possessive pronouns are used to indicatepossession (in a broad sense). Some occur as independent noun phrases:mine,yours,hers,ours,theirs. An example is:Those clothes aremine. Others act as a determiner and must accompany a noun:my,your,her,our,your,their, as in:I lostmy wallet. (His andits can fall into either category, althoughits is nearly always found in the second.) Those of the second type have traditionally also been described as possessiveadjectives, and in more modern terminology aspossessive determiners. The term "possessive pronoun" is sometimes restricted to the first type. Both types replacepossessive noun phrases. As an example,Their crusade to capture our attention could replaceThe advertisers'crusade to capture our attention.[2]: 55–56
Reflexive pronouns are used when a person or thing acts on itself, for example,John cuthimself. In English they all end in-self or-selves and must refer to a noun phrase elsewhere in the same clause.[2]: 55
Reciprocal pronouns refer to a reciprocal relationship (each other,one another). They must refer to a noun phrase in the same clause.[2]: 55 An example in English is:They do not likeeach other. In some languages, the same forms can be used as both reflexive and reciprocal pronouns.
Demonstrative pronouns (in English,this,that and their pluralsthese,those) often distinguish their targets by pointing or some other indication of position; for example,I'll takethese. They may also beanaphoric, depending on an earlier expression for context, for example,A kid actor would try to be all sweet, and who needsthat?[2]: 56
Indefinite pronouns, the largest group of pronouns, refer to one or more unspecified persons or things. One group in English includes compounds ofsome-,any-,every- andno- with-thing,-one and-body, for example:Anyone can do that. Another group, includingmany,more,both, andmost, can appear alone or followed byof.[2]: 54–55 In addition,
Distributive pronouns are used to refer to members of a group separately rather than collectively. (Toeach his own.)
Negative pronouns indicate the non-existence of people or things. (Nobody thinks that.)
Impersonal pronouns normally refer to a person but are not specific as to first, second or third person in the way that the personal pronouns are. (One does not cleanone's own windows.)
Relative pronouns in English includewho,whom,whose,what,which andthat. They rely on an antecedent, and refer back to people or things previously mentioned:Peoplewho smoke should quit now. They are used inrelative clauses.[2]: 56 Relative pronouns can also be used ascomplementizers.
Relative pronouns can be used in an interrogative setting as interrogative pronouns. Interrogative pronouns ask which person or thing is meant. In reference to a person, one may usewho (subject),whom (object) orwhose (possessive); for example,Who did that? In colloquial speech,whom is generally replaced bywho. English non-personal interrogative pronouns (which andwhat) have only one form.[2]: 56–57
In English and many other languages (e.g.French andCzech), the sets of relative and interrogative pronouns are nearly identical. Compare English:Who is that? (interrogative) andI know the womanwho came (relative). In some other languages, interrogative pronouns and indefinite pronouns are frequently identical; for example,Standard Chinese什么shénme means "what?" as well as "something" or "anything".
Though the personal pronouns described above are the current English pronouns,Early Modern English (as used by Shakespeare, for example) use a slightly different set of personal pronouns, shown in the table. The difference is entirely in the second person. Though one would rarely find these older forms used in recent literature, they are nevertheless considered part of Modern English.
Kinship
In English,kin terms like "mother", "uncle", "cousin" are a distinct word class from pronouns; however manyAustralian Aboriginal languages have more elaborated systems of encoding kinship in language including special kin forms of pronouns. InMurrinh-patha, for example, when selecting a nonsingular exclusive pronoun to refer to a group, the speaker will assess whether or not the members of the group belong to a common class of gender or kinship. If all of the members of the referent group are male, the MASCULINE form will be selected; if at least one is female, the FEMININE is selected, but if all the members are in a sibling-like kinship relation, a third SIBLING form is selected.[11] InArabana-Wangkangurru, the speaker will use entirely different sets of pronouns depending on whether the speaker and the referent are or are not in a commonmoiety. See the following example:
They two [who are in the classificatory relationship of father and son] are fighting. (The people involved were a man and his wife's sister's son.)[12]
Gender non-specific uses, where a pronoun refers to a non-specific person or a person whose gender is not specified: English usage and acceptance varies (and has varied) regardinggeneriche andsingularthey, among others.
A closely related usage is thesingularthey to refer to a person whose gender is specified asnon-binary, genderqueer, or other, which has gained popularity in LGBTQ+ culture in particular. Both themselves/themself work as the reflexive form of this pronoun.
Vernacular usage of "bro" as a gender-neutral, but often masculine pronoun.
Dummy pronouns (expletive pronouns), used to satisfy a grammatical requirement for a noun or pronoun, but contributing nothing to its meaning:It is raining.
Royal we, used to refer to a single person who is amonarch:We are not amused.
Nosism: The use of the pronounwe to refer to oneself.
Resumptive pronouns, "intrusive" personal pronouns found (for example) in some relative clauses where a gap (trace) might be expected:This is the girl that I don't know whatshe said.
^Not to be confused withprenominal, which means "before the noun". For example, English adjectives are prenominal, e.g.theblue house, while there are rarepostnominal exceptions likeattorneysgeneral.
^abcdefghijklBörjars, Kersti; Burridge, Kate (2010).Introducing English grammar (2nd ed.). London: Hodder Education. pp. 50–57.ISBN978-1444109870.
^Loos, Eugene E.; Anderson, Susan; Day, Dwight H. Jr.; Jordan, Paul C.; Wingate, J. Douglas (3 December 2015)."What is a pronominal?".Glossary of linguistic terms. SIL International.Archived from the original on 14 November 2018. Retrieved14 November 2018.
^Crystal, David (1985).A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics (2nd ed.). Basil Blackwell.
^Huddleston, Rodney; Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002).Cambridge grammar of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
^For example, Vulf Plotkin (The Language System of English, Universal Publishers, 2006, pp. 82–83) writes: "[...] Pronouns exemplify such a word class, or rather several smaller classes united by an important semantic distinction between them and all the major parts of speech. The latter denote things, phenomena and their properties in the ambient world. [...] Pronouns, on the contrary, do not denote anything, but refer to things, phenomena or properties without involving their peculiar nature."
^Postal, Paul (1966). Dinneen, Francis P. (ed.). "On So-Called "Pronouns" in English".Report of the Seventeenth Annual Round Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Studies. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press:177–206.
^For detailed discussion see George D. Morley,Explorations in Functional Syntax: A New Framework for Lexicogrammatical Analysis, Equinox Publishing Ltd., 2004, pp. 68–73.
^abSimon, Horst J.; Wiese, Heike (2002).Pronouns - Grammar and Representation. Linguistics Today. p. 190.ISBN9789027227737.
