Professor (commonly abbreviated asProf.)[1] is anacademic rank atuniversities and otherpost-secondary education and research institutions in most countries. Literally,professor derives fromLatin as a 'person who professes'. Professors are usuallyexperts in their field and teachers of the highest rank.[1]
In most systems ofacademic ranks, "professor" as an unqualified title refers only to the most senior academic position, sometimes informally known as "full professor".[2][3] In some countries and institutions, the wordprofessor is also used in titles of lower ranks such asassociate professor andassistant professor; this is particularly the case in the United States, where the unqualified word is also used colloquially to refer to associate and assistant professors as well, and often to instructors or lecturers.[4]
Professors often conductoriginal research and commonly teachundergraduate,postgraduate, orprofessional courses in their fields of expertise. In universities withgraduate schools, professors may mentor and supervise graduate students conducting research for athesis or dissertation. In many universities, full professors take on senior managerial roles such as leading departments, research teams and institutes, and filling roles such aspresident, principal orvice-chancellor.[5] The role of professor may be more public-facing than that of more junior staff, and professors are expected to be national or international leaders in their field of expertise.[5]
The Ancient Greek philosopherSocrates was one of the earliest recorded professors[6]
The termprofessor was first used in the late 14th century to mean 'one who teaches a branch of knowledge'.[1] The word comes...fromOld Frenchprofesseur (14c.) and directly from [the]Latinprofessor[, for] 'person who professes to be an expert in some art or science; teacher of highest rank'; the Latin term came from the...agent noun fromprofiteri 'lay claim to, declare openly'. As a title that isprefixed to a name, it dates from 1706. The[s]hort form prof is recorded from 1838. The termprofessor is also used with a different meaning:[o]ne professing religion. This canting use of the word comes down from theElizabethan period, but is obsolete in England.[1]
A professor is an accomplished and recognized academic. In mostCommonwealth nations, as well as northern Europe, the titleprofessor is the highest academic rank at a university. In theUnited States andCanada, the title ofprofessor applies to most post-doctoral academics, so a larger percentage are thus designated. In these areas, professors are scholars with doctorate degrees (typicallyPhD degrees) or equivalent qualifications who teach in colleges anduniversities. Anemeritus professor is a title given to selected retired professors with whom the university wishes to continue to be associated due to their stature and ongoing research. Emeritus professors do not receive a salary, but they are often given office or lab space, and use of libraries, labs, and so on.[7][8]
The term professor is also used in the titlesassistant professor andassociate professor,[9] which are not considered professor-level positions in all European countries. In Australia, the titleassociate professor is used in place of the termreader as used in the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth countries; ranking above senior lecturer and below full professor.[10]
Beyond holding the proper academic title, universities in many countries also give notable artists, athletes and foreign dignitaries the titlehonorary professor, even if these persons do not have the academic qualifications typically necessary for professorship and they do not take up professorial duties. However, such "professors" usually do not undertake academic work for the granting institution. In general, the title of professor is strictly used for academic positions rather than for those holding it on honorary basis.
Providingcommunity service, including consulting functions (such as advising government and nonprofit organizations) or providing expert commentary on TV or radio news or public affairs programs;
Conducting administrative or managerial functions, usually at a high level (e.g. deans, heads of departments, research centers, etc.); and
Assessing students in their fields of expertise (e.g., through gradingexaminations orviva voce defenses).
Other roles of professorial tasks depend on the institution, its legacy, protocols, place (country), and time. For example, professors at research-oriented universities in North America and, generally, at European universities, are promoted primarily on the basis of research achievements and external grant-raising success.
Salary of professors, as reported in the 2005 report theDeutscher Hochschulverband [de] DHV. Bars are for assistant professor, associate professor and full professor, respectively.
A professor typically earns a base salary and a range ofemployee benefits. In addition, a professor who undertakes additional roles in their institution (e.g., department chair, dean, head of graduate studies, etc.) sometimes earns additional income. Some professors also earn additional income by moonlighting in other jobs, such asconsulting, publishing academic or popular press books, giving speeches, or coaching executives. Some fields (e.g., business and computer science) give professors more opportunities for outside work.
A report from 2005 by the "Deutscher Hochschulverband DHV",[13] a lobby group for German professors, the salary of professors, the annual salary of a German professor is€46,680 in group "W2" (mid-level) and €56,683 in group "W3" (the highest level), without performance-related bonuses. The anticipated average earnings with performance-related bonuses for a German professor is €71,500. The anticipated average earnings of a professor working in Switzerland vary for example between 158,953CHF (€102,729) to 232,073 CHF (€149,985) at theUniversity of Zurich and 187,937 CHF (€121,461) to 247,280 CHF (€159,774) at theETH Zurich; the regulations are different depending on theCantons of Switzerland.
As of 2021[update], in the Italian universities there are about 18 thousand Assistant Professors, 23 thousand Associate Professors, and 14 thousand Full Professors. The role of "professore a contratto" (the equivalent of an "adjunct professor"), a non-tenured position which does not require a PhD nor any habilitation, is paid at the end of the academic year nearly €3000 for the entire academic year,[14] without salary during the academic year.[15] There are about 28 thousand "Professori a contratto" in Italy.[16] Associate Professors have a gross salary in between 52.937,59 and 96.186,12 euros per year, Full Professors have a gross salary in between 75.431,76 and 131.674 Euros per year, and adjunct professors of around 3,000 euros per year.[17]
The salaries of civil servant professors in Spain are fixed on a nationwide basis, but there are some bonuses related to performance and seniority and a number of bonuses granted by the Autonomous Regional governments. These bonuses include three-year premiums (Spanish:trienios, according to seniority), five-year premiums (quinquenios, according to compliance with teaching criteria set by the university) and six-year premiums (sexenios, according to compliance with research criteria laid down by the national government). These salary bonuses are relatively small. Nevertheless, the total number ofsexenios is a prerequisite for being a member of different committees.
The importance of thesesexenios as aprestige factor in the university was enhanced by legislation in 2001 (LOU). Some indicative numbers can be interesting, in spite of the variance in the data. We report net monthly payments (after taxes and social security fees), without bonuses: Ayudante, €1,200; Ayudante Doctor, €1,400; Contratado Doctor; €1,800; Profesor Titular, €2,000;Catedrático, €2,400. There are a total of 14 payments per year, including 2 extra payments in July and December (but for less than a normal monthly payment).
Professors in the United States commonly occupy any of several positions inacademia. In the U.S., the word "professor" informally refers collectively to theacademic ranks ofassistant professor,associate professor, or professor. This usage differs from the predominant usage of the word "professor" internationally, where the unqualified word "professor" only refers to full professors. The majority of university lecturers and instructors in the United States, as of 2015[update], do not occupy thesetenure-track ranks, but are part-time adjuncts.[19]
In 2007 the Dutch social fund for the academic sector SoFoKleS[20] commissioned a comparative study of the wage structure of academic professions in the Netherlands in relation to that of other countries. Among the countries reviewed are the United States, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Germany, Belgium, France, Sweden and the Netherlands. To improve comparability, adjustments have been made to correct forpurchasing power and taxes. Because of differences between institutions in the US and UK these countries have two listings of which one denotes the salary in top-tier institutions (based on theShanghai-ranking).
The table below shows the final reference wages (per year) expressed in net amounts of Dutch euros in 2014 (i.e., converted into Dutchpurchasing power).[21]
NL comparison, 2014, net salaries, in NL purchasing power
In a number of countries, the title "research professor" refers to a professor who is exclusively or mainly engaged in research, and who has few or no teaching obligations. For example, the title is used in this sense in theUnited Kingdom (where it is known as a research professor at some universities and professorial research fellow at some other institutions) and innorthern Europe. A research professor is usually the most senior rank of a research-focused career pathway in those countries and is regarded as equal to the ordinary full professor rank. Most often they are permanent employees, and the position is often held by particularly distinguished scholars; thus the position is often seen as more prestigious than an ordinary full professorship. The title is used in a somewhat similar sense in theUnited States, with the exception that research professors in the United States are often not permanent employees and often must fund their salary from external sources,[22] which is usually not the case elsewhere.
Since the 1980s and 1990s, various stereotypes were re-evaluated, including professors. Writers began to depict professors as just normal human beings and might be quite well-rounded in abilities, excelling both in intelligence and in physical skills. An example of a fictional professor not depicted as shy or absent-minded isIndiana Jones, a professor as well as anarcheologist-adventurer, who is skilled at both scholarship and fighting. The popularity of theIndiana Jones movie franchise had a significant impact on the previous stereotype, and created a new archetype which is both deeply knowledgeable and physically capable.[23] The character generally referred to simply asthe Professor on the televisionsitcom series,Gilligan's Island, although described alternatively as a high-school science teacher or research scientist, is depicted as a sensible advisor, a clever inventor, and a helpful friend to his fellowcastaways.John Houseman's portrayal of law school professor Charles W. Kingsfield, Jr., inThe Paper Chase (1973) remains theepitome of the strict, authoritarian professor who demands perfection from students.Annalise Keating (played byViola Davis) from theAmerican Broadcasting Company (ABC)legal dramamystery television seriesHow to Get Away with Murder is alaw professor at the fictional Middleton University.[24] Early in the series, Annalise is a self-sufficient and confident woman, respected for being a great law professor and a great lawyer, feared and admired by her students,[25] whose image breaks down as the series progresses.[26] Sandra Oh stars as an English professor, Ji-Yoon Kim, recently promoted to the role of department chair in the 2021 Netflix seriesThe Chair. The series includes her character's negotiation of liberal arts campus politics, in particular issues of racism, sexism, and social mores.[27]
Mysterious, older men with magical powers (and unclear academic standing) are sometimes given the title of "Professor" in literature and theater. Notable examples includeProfessor X in theX-Men franchise, Professor Marvel inThe Wizard of Oz[28] and Professor Drosselmeyer (as he is sometimes known) from the balletThe Nutcracker. Also, the magician played by Christian Bale in the filmThe Prestige[29] adopts 'The Professor' as hisstage name. A variation of this type of non-academic professor is the "crackpot inventor", as portrayed by Professor Potts in the film version ofChitty Chitty Bang Bang or the Jerry Lewis-inspiredProfessor Frink character onThe Simpsons. Other professors of this type are the thoughtful and kind Professor Digory Kirke ofC. S. Lewis'sChronicles of Narnia.
The title has been used bycomedians, such as "Professor"Irwin Corey andSoupy Sales in his role as "The Big Professor". In the past,pianists insaloons and other rough environments have been called "professor".[30] Thepuppeteer of aPunch and Judy show is also traditionally known as "Professor".[31] Aside from such examples in the performing arts, one apparently novel example is known where the title of professor has latterly been applied to a college appointee with an explicitly "non-academic role", which seems to be primarily linked to claims of "strategic importance".[32]
