Marcus Aurelius Probus (/ˈproʊbəs/; 230–235 – September 282) wasRoman emperor from 276 to 282. Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner provinces while withstanding repeated invasions of barbarian tribes on almost every sector of the frontier.[6]
After repelling the foreign enemies of the empire, Probus was forced to handle several internal revolts but demonstrated leniency and moderation to the vanquished wherever possible.[7] Despite the military basis of his power, he presented himself as a constitutional monarch who respected the authority of theRoman Senate.[8]
Upon defeating the Germans, Probus re-erected the fortifications of emperorHadrian between the Rhine and Danube rivers, protecting theAgri Decumates,[9] and exacted from the vanquished a tribute of manpower to resettle depopulated provinces within the empire and provide for adequate defense of the frontiers.[10] Despite his widespread popularity, Probus was killed in a mutiny of the soldiers while in the middle of preparations for the Persian war, which would be carried out under his successorCarus.[11]
Probus was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth unknown) inSirmium (modern daySremska Mitrovica,Serbia),Pannonia Inferior,[12] the son of Dalmatius.[5] According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in the year 232.[13] TheHistoria Augusta gives his father's name as Maximus and claims that his mother was of higher status than his father, that he had a sister named Claudia, that he was related to emperorClaudius Gothicus, his personal wealth was modest and his nearest kin unimportant.[14] Probus had a brother namedDometius of Byzantium who was theBishop of Byzantium from about 272 until his death in 284. Besides his best knownnomina Aurelius which can be found on most inscriptions, papyri and coinage, as well as Equitius attested on his coins from Ticinum and Pseudo-Aurelius Victor, theHistoria Augusta gives him Valerius and Malalas Aelius.[15]
Probus entered the army around 25 upon reaching adulthood. He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military decorations. Appointed at a very young age as amilitary tribune by the emperorValerian, in recognition of his latent ability,[citation needed] he justified the choice by a distinguished victory over theSarmatians on theIllyrian frontier.[18] During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the only province, generaled by such officers asClaudius,Aurelian and Probus, where the barbarians were kept at bay, whileGaul was overrun by theFranks,Rhaetia by theAlemans,Thrace and theMediterranean by theGoths, and the east byShapur I.[19] Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian, reconqueringEgypt fromZenobia in 273 A.D. EmperorTacitus, upon his accession in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of the east, granting him extraordinary powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier.[20] Though the details are not specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death in 276, in his camp inAsia Minor.[18][21]
Antoninianus of Probus minted in 280. The reverse depicts the solar divinitySol Invictus riding aquadriga.Legend: PROBVS P. F. AVG.
Florian, the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains ofCilicia.[22][23] In contrast to Florian, who ignored the wishes of the Senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The Senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions.[8] Probus next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title ofGothicus.[citation needed] However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire.[24]
Gilded bronze head of Probus fromBrescia in northern Italy.[25][26]
In 278, Probus campaigned successfully inGaul against theAlemanni andLongiones; both tribes had advanced through theNeckar valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory.[27] Meanwhile, his generals defeated theFranks and these operations were directed to clearingGaul of Germanic invaders (Franks andBurgundians), allowing Probus to adopt the titles ofGothicus Maximus andGermanicus Maximus.[12] Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of theLugii were extirpated.[28]
After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed theRhine to campaign successfully against the barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected byHadrian in the vulnerable space between the Rhine andDanube, in the territory ofSwabia. Probus advanced possibly as far as the Elbe, but ultimately decided against annexing all Germany to the Roman Empire and instead accepted the submission of nine major tribes, who provided recruits for his army. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during theCrisis of the Third Century, and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.[29]
The army discipline whichAurelian had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty.[30] One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting ofvineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts,[31] in order to restart the economy in these devastated lands.[32]
In 279–280, Probus was, according toZosimus, inRaetia,Illyricum andLycia, where he fought theVandals.[23] In the same years, Probus' generals defeated theBlemmyes inEgypt. Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along theNile, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.[33][34]
Coin of c. 280 AD depicting Probus andSol Invictus. The inscription reads: IMP·C·PROBUS·INVIC·P·F·AUG ("Emperor Caesar Probus, Unconquered, Pious, Blessed")
In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers,Julius Saturninus,Proculus andBonosus.[35] The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain).[36] Following this, Probus then put down a revolt by an unnamed rebel in Britain with the assistance of a certain Victorinus, who was later made consul in 282.[37][38] During the winter of 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated atriumph.[38]
Goldaureus of Probus, marked: IMP C MAVR PROBVS P AVG.Gold coin of Probus in military armour. Legend: IMP. PROBVS AVG.
Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west.[39] He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city.
Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him atSirmium (September/October 282).[41] According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes.[42] Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army.[11] Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor.[43]
According to the favorable treatment ofGibbon (whose account is largely derived from theAugustan History), Probus was the last of the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome.[44] While his successorCarus (Imp. 282–284) simply disdained to seek the Senate's confirmation of his title, the latter's successorDiocletian (Imp. 284–305) took active measures to undermine its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman Senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military sphere, Probus' victories continued the succession of martialIllyrian emperors begun byClaudius Gothicus, which restored the military supremacy of Rome after defeats sustained during the Crisis of the Third Century.[18]
Wood, Susan (1987). "Child-Emperors and Heirs to Power in Third-Century Portraiture". In Jiří Frel; Arthur Houghton & Marion True (eds.).Ancient Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum: Volume 1. Occasional Papers on Antiquities. Vol. 4. Malibu, CA, US: J. Paul Getty Museum. pp. 115–136.ISBN0-89236-071-2.
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