| Prithviraj Chauhan | |
|---|---|
.jpg) Posthumous painting depicting Prithviraj Chauhan seated on a terrace leaning against a bolster from Kota | |
| King ofSapadalaksha | |
| Reign | c. 1177 – February 1192 |
| Predecessor | Someshvara |
| Successor | Govindaraja IV |
| Born | 28 May 1166 Gujarat |
| Died | February 1192(1192-02-00) (aged 25) Ajmer |
| Spouse | Sanyogita |
| Dynasty | Chahamanas of Shakambhari |
| Father | Someshvara |
| Mother | Karpuradevi (Kalachuri Princess) |
| Religion | Hinduism |
Prithviraja III (IAST: Pṛthvī-rāja; 28 May 1166 – February 1192), popularly known asPrithviraj Chauhan orRai Pithora, was a king from theChauhan (Chahamana) dynasty who ruled the territory ofSapadalaksha, with his capital atAjmer in present-dayRajasthan in north-western India. Ascending the throne as a minor in 1177 CE, Prithviraj inherited a kingdom which stretched fromThanesar in the north toJahazpur (Mewar) in the south, which he aimed to expand by military actions against neighbouring kingdoms, most notably defeating theChandelas.
Prithviraj led a coalition of severalRajput kings and defeated theGhurid army led byMuhammad of Ghor nearTaraori in 1191 However, in 1192, Muhammad returned with an army ofTurkish mounted archers and defeated the Rajput armyon the same battlefield. Prithviraj was captured and summarily executed, although his minor sonGovindaraja was reinstated by Muhammad as his puppet ruler inAjmer. His defeat at Tarain is seen as a landmark event in theIslamic conquest of India, and has been described in several semi-legendary accounts, most notably thePrithviraj Raso.
The extant inscriptions from Prithviraj's reign are few in number and were not issued by the king himself.[1] Much of the information about him comes from the medieval legendary chronicles. Besides the Muslim accounts of Battles of Tarain, he has been mentioned in several medievalkavyas (epic poems) by Hindu and Jain authors. These includePrithviraja Vijaya,Hammira Mahakavya andPrithviraj Raso. These texts contain eulogistic descriptions, and are, therefore, not entirely reliable.[2]Prithviraja Vijaya is the only surviving literary text from the reign of Prithviraj.[3]Prithviraj Raso, which popularized Prithviraj as a great king, is purported to be written by his court poetChand Bardai. However, it contains many exaggerated accounts, much of which is not useful for the purposes of history.[2]
Other chronicles and texts that mention Prithviraj includePrabandha-Chintamani,Prabandha Kosha andPrithviraja Prabandha. These were composed centuries after his death, and contain exaggerations andanachronistic anecdotes.[2] Prithviraj has also been mentioned inKharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali, a Sanskrit text containing biographies of the KharataraJain monks. While the work was completed in 1336 CE, the part that mentions Prithviraj was written around 1250 CE.[4] TheAlha-Khanda (orAlha Raso) of theChandela poet Jaganika also provides an exaggerated account of Prithviraj's war against the Chandelas.[5]
Some other Indian texts also mention Prithviraj but do not provide much information of historical value. For example, the Sanskrit poem anthologySharngadhara-paddhati (1363) contains a verse praising him, and theKanhadade Prabandha (1455) mentions him as an earlier incarnation of theJalore Chahamana kingViramade.[6]
Prithviraj was born to theChahamana kingSomeshvara and queen Karpuradevi (aKalachuri princess).[7] Both Prithviraj and his younger brotherHariraja were born inGujarat, where their father Someshvara was brought up at theChaulukya court by his maternal relatives.[7] According toPrithviraja Vijaya, Prithviraj was born on the 12th day of theJyeshtha month. The text does not mention the year of his birth, but provides some of theastrological planetary positions at the time of his birth, calling them auspicious. Based on these positions and assuming certain other planetary positions,Dasharatha Sharma calculated the year of Prithviraj's birth as 1166 CE (1223VS).[8][9]
The medieval biographies of Prithviraj suggest that he was educated well. ThePrithviraja Vijaya states that he mastered 6 languages; thePrithviraj Raso claims that he learned 14 languages, which appears to be an exaggeration. TheRaso goes on to claim that he became well-versed in a number of subjects, including history, mathematics, medicine, military, painting, philosophy (mimamsa), and theology. Both the texts state that he was particularly proficient inarchery.[10]
Prithviraj moved from Gujarat to Ajmer, when his father Someshvara was crowned the Chahamana king after the death ofPrithviraja II.[11] Someshvara died in 1177 CE (1234VS), when Prithviraj was around 11 years old. The last inscription from Someshvara's reign and the first inscription from Prithviraj's reign are both dated to this year. Prithviraj, who was a minor at the time, ascended the throne with his mother as theregent.[8] TheHammira Mahakavya claims that Someshvara himself installed Prithviraj on the throne, and thenretired to the forest. However, this is doubtful.[12]
During his early years as the king, Prithviraj's mother managed the administration, assisted by a regency council.[12]
Kadambavasa served as the chief minister of the kingdom during this period. He is also known as Kaimasa, Kaimash or Kaimbasa in the folk legends, which describe him as an able administrator and soldier devoted to the young king.[8]Prithviraja Vijaya states that he was responsible for all the military victories during the early years of Prithviraj's reign. According to two different legends, Kadambavasa was later killed by Prithviraj. ThePrithviraja-Raso claims that Prithviraj killed the minister after finding him in the apartment of the king's favourite concubine Karnati.Prithviraja-Prabandha claims that a man named Pratapa-Simha conspired against the minister, and convinced Prithviraj that the minister was responsible for the repeated Muslim invasions. Both these claims appear to be historically inaccurate, as the much more historically reliablePrithviraja Vijaya does not mention any such incident.[13]
Bhuvanaikamalla, the paternal uncle of Prithviraj's mother, was another important minister during this time.[13] According toPrithviraja Vijaya, he was a valiant general who served Prithviraj asGaruda servesVishnu.[14] The text also states that he was "proficient in the art of subduingnāgas". According to the 15th-century historianJonaraja, "naga" here refers to elephants. However,Har Bilas Sarda interpreted Naga as the name of a tribe, and theorized that Bhuvanaikamalla defeated this tribe.[13]
According to historianDasharatha Sharma, Prithviraj assumed actual control of the administration in 1180 CE (1237VS).[13]
The first military achievement of Prithviraj was his suppression of a revolt by his cousin Nagarjuna, and recapture of Gudapura (IAST: Guḍapura; possibly modernGurgaon).[2][13] Nagarjuna was a son of Prithviraj's uncleVigraharaja IV, and the struggle for the Chahamana throne had led to a rivalry between the two branches of the family.[13]
According toPrithviraja Vijaya, Nagarjuna rebelled against Prithviraj's authority and occupied the fort of Gudapura.[15] Prithviraj besieged Gudapura with a large army comprisinginfantry,camels,elephants andhorses. Nagarjuna fled the fort, but Devabhata (possibly his general) continued to offer resistance. Ultimately, Prithviraj's army emerged victorious, and captured the wife, mother, and followers of Nagarjuna. According toPrithviraja Vijaya, a garland made of the defeated soldiers' heads was hung across the Ajmer fort gate.[16]
Two verses ofKharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali mention the victory of Prithviraj over theBhadanakas, while describing a debate between twoJain monks. This victory can be dated to sometime before 1182 CE, when the said debate took place.[5][16] According to Cynthia Talbot, the Bhadanakas were an obscure dynasty who controlled the area aroundBayana.[4] According to Dasharatha Sharma, the Bhadanaka territory comprised the area around present-dayBhiwani,Rewari andAlwar.[16]
The 1182–83 CE (1239VS)Madanpur inscriptions from Prithviraj's reign claim that he "laid to waste" Jejakabhukti (present-dayBundelkhand), which was ruled by theChandela kingParamardi.[16] Prithviraj's invasion of the Chandela territory is also described in the later folk legends, such asPrithviraj Raso,Paramal Raso, andAlha-Raso.[17] Other texts such asSarangadhara Paddhati andPrabandha Chintamani also mention Prithviraj's attack on Paramardi.[18] TheKharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali mentions that Prithviraj had embarked upon adigvijaya (conquest of all the regions). This appears to be a reference to the start of Prithviraj's march to Jejakabhukti.[16]
The legendary account of Prithviraj's campaign against the Chandelas goes like this: Prithviraj was returning toDelhi after marrying the daughter of Padamsen, when his contingent was attacked by the "Turkic" forces (Ghurids). His army repulsed the attacks but suffered serious casualties in the process. Amid this chaos, the Chahamana soldiers lost their way and unknowingly encamped in the Chandela capitalMahoba. They killed the Chandela royal gardener for objecting to their presence, which led to a skirmish between the two sides. The Chandela king Paramardi asked his generalUdal to attack Prithviraj's camp, but Udal advised against this move. Paramardi's brother-in-law Mahil Parihar ruled modern-dayOrai; he harboured ill-will against Paramardi and instigated the king to go ahead with the attack. Prithviraj defeated Udal's contingent and then left for Delhi. Subsequently, unhappy with Mahil's scheming, Udal and his brotherAlha left the Chandela court. They started servingJaichand, theGahadavala ruler ofKannauj. Mahil then secretly informed Prithviraj that Chandela kingdom had become weak in absence of its strongest generals. Prithviraj invaded the Chandela kingdom and besieged Sirsagarh, which was held by Udal's cousin Malkhan. After failing to win over Malkhan through peaceful methods and losing eight generals, Prithviraj captured the fort. The Chandelas then appealed for a truce, and used this time to recall Alha and Udal from Kannauj. In support of the Chandelas, Jaichand dispatched an army led by his best generals, including two of his own sons. The combined Chandela-Gahadavala army attacked Prithviraj's camp, but was defeated. After his victory, Prithviraj sacked Mahoba. He then dispatched his general Chavand Rai toKalinjar Fort to capture Paramardi. According to the various legends, Paramardi either died or retired shortly after the attack. Prithviraj returned to Delhi after appointing Pajjun Rai as the governor of Mahoba. Later, Paramardi's son recaptured Mahoba.[19]
The exact historicity of this legendary narrative is debatable. The Madanpur inscriptions establish that Prithviraj sacked Mahoba, but historical evidence suggests that his occupation of Chandela territory is either a fabrication by the bards, or did not last long. It is known that Paramardi did not die or retire immediately after the Chauhan victory; in fact, he continued ruling as a sovereign nearly a decade after Prithviraj's death.[20] Cynthia Talbot asserts that Prithviraj only raided Jejakabhukti, and Paramardi regained control of his kingdom soon after his departure from Mahoba. Talbot continues that Prithviraj was not able to annex the Chandela territory to his kingdom.[4] Conversely, according to R.B. Singh, it is probable that some part of Chandela territory was annexed by Chahmanas albeit for a short time.[21]
TheKharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali mentions a peace treaty between Prithviraj, andBhima II, theChaulukya (Solanki) king ofGujarat. This implies that the two kings were previously at war.[4] This war can be dated to sometime before 1187 CE (1244VS). TheVeraval inscription states that Bhima's prime minister Jagaddeva Pratihara was "the moon to the lotus-like queens of Prithviraja" (a reference to the belief that the moon-rise causes a day-blooming lotus to close its petals).[22] Since Bhima was a minor at the time, it appears that Jagaddeva led the campaign on the Chaulukya side.[23]
The historically unreliablePrithviraj Raso provides some details about the Chahamana-Chaulukya struggle.[24] According to it, both Prithviraj and Bhima wanted to marry Ichchhini, the Paramara princess of Abu. Prithviraj's marriage to her led to a rivalry between the two kings. HistorianG. H. Ojha dismisses this legend as fiction, because it states that Ichchhini was a daughter of Salakha, while Dharavarsha was the Paramara ruler of Abu at the time. Historian R. B. Singh, on the other hand, believes that Salakha was the head of another Paramara branch at Abu.[25] TheRaso also mentions that Prithviraj's uncle Kanhadeva had killed seven sons of Bhima's uncle Sarangadeva. To avenge these murders, Bhima invaded the Chahamana kingdom and killed Prithviraj's father Someshvara, capturingNagor in the process.[26] Prithviraj re-captured Nagor, and defeated and killed Bhima. This is known to be historically false, as the reign of Bhima II lasted nearly half a century after Prithviraj's death. Similarly, historical evidence suggests Bhima II was a child at the time of Someshvara's death, and therefore, could not have killed him.[24]
Despite these discrepancies, there is some evidence of a battle between the Chahamanas and the Chaulukyas at Nagor. Two inscriptions found at Charlu village nearBikaner commemorate the death ofMohil soldiers at the battle of Nagor in 1184 CE (1241VS). The Mohils are a branch of the Chauhans (the Chahamanas), and it is possible the inscriptions refer to the battle described inPrithviraj Raso.[27][28]
Sometime before 1187 CE, Jagaddeva Pratihara signed a peace treaty with Prithviraj. According toKharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali, a chief named Abhayada once sought Jagaddeva's permission to attack and rob the wealthy visitors from Sapadalaksha country (the Chahamana territory). In response, Jagaddeva told Abhayada that he had concluded a treaty with Prithviraj with much difficulty. Jaggadeva then threatened to have Abhayada sewn in a donkey's belly if he harassed the people of Sapadalaksha. HistorianDasharatha Sharma theorizes that the Chahamana-Chaulukya conflict ended with some advantage for Prithviraj, as Jagaddeva appears to have been very anxious to preserve the treaty.[24] According to historianR.C. Majumdar andSatish Chandra his long drawn out struggle against Gujarat was unsuccessful and he suffered a reverse against Bhima. Thus, Prithviraj concluded a treaty by 1187 CE.[29][30]
The area aroundMount Abu was ruled by theChandravati Paramara ruler Dharavarsha, who was a Chaulukya feudatory.Partha-Parakrama-Vyayoga, a text written by his younger brother Prahaladana, describes Prithviraj's night attack on Abu. This attack, according to the text, was a failure for the Chahamanas. It probably happened during the Gujarat campaign of Prithviraj.[24]
TheGahadavala kingdom, centered aroundKannauj and headed by another powerful kingJayachandra, was located to the east of the Chahamana kingdom. According to a legend mentioned inPrithviraj Raso, Prithviraj eloped with Jayachandra's daughterSamyogita, leading to a rivalry between the two kings.[31]
The legend goes like this: King Jaichand (Jayachandra) of Kannauj decided to conduct aRajasuya ceremony to proclaim his supremacy. Prithviraj refused to participate in this ceremony, and thus, refused to acknowledge Jaichand as the supreme king. Jaichand's daughter Samyogita fell in love with Prithviraj after hearing about his heroic exploits, and declared that she would marry only him. Jaichand arranged aswayamvara (husband-selection) ceremony for his daughter, but did not invite Prithviraj. Nevertheless, Prithviraj marched to Kannauj with a hundred warriors and eloped with Samyogita. Two-thirds of his warriors sacrificed their life in fight against the Gahadavala army, allowing him to escape to Delhi with Samyogita. InDelhi, Prithviraj became infatuated with his new wife, and started spending most of his time with her. He started ignoring the state affairs, which ultimately led to his defeat againstMuhammad of Ghor.[32]
This legend is also mentioned inAbu'l-Fazl'sAin-i-Akbari and Chandrashekhara'sSurjana-Charita (which names the Gahadavala princess as "Kantimati").Prithviraja Vijaya mentions that Prithviraj fell in love with the incarnation of anapsaraTilottama, although he had never seen this woman and was already married to other women. According to historianDasharatha Sharma, this is probably a reference to Samyogita. However, this legend is not mentioned in other historical sources such asPrithviraja-Prabandha,Prabandha-Chintamani,Prabandha-Kosha andHammira-Mahakavya.[33] The Gahadavala records are also silent about this event, including the supposed Rajasuya performance by Jayachandra.[34]
According to Dasharatha Sharma[35] and R. B. Singh,[36] there might be some historical truth in this legend, as it is mentioned in three different sources. All three sources place the event sometime before Prithviraj's final confrontation withMuhammad of Ghor in 1192 CE.[37]
ThePrithviraj Raso mentions that Prithviraj defeated Nahar Rai of Mandovara and the Mughal chief Mudgala Rai, but these stories appear to be pure fiction. No historical records suggest existence of these persons.[2]
The construction of the now-ruinedQila Rai Pithora fort inDelhi is attributed to Prithviraj.[38] According toPrithviraj Raso, Delhi's rulerAnangpal Tomar gave the city to his son-in-law Prithviraj, and was defeated when he wanted it back. This is historically inaccurate, as Delhi was annexed to the Chahamana territory by Prithviraj's uncleVigraharaja IV.[2] In addition, historical evidence suggests that Anangpal Tomar died before the birth of Prithviraj. The claim about his daughter's marriage to Prithviraj appears to have been concocted at a later date.[39]
Prithviraj's predecessors had faced multiple raids from theMuslim dynasties that had captured the north-western areas of theIndian subcontinent by the 12th century.[40] By the late 12th century, theGhazna-basedGhurid dynasty controlled the territory to the west of the Chahamana kingdom. While Prithviraj was still a child, in 1175 CE, the Ghurid rulerMuhammad of Ghor crossed theIndus River and capturedMultan. In 1178 CE, he invadedGujarat, which was ruled by theChaulukyas (Solankis). During its march to Gujarat, the Ghurid army appears to have passed through the western frontier of the Chahamana kingdom, as evident by the destruction of several temples and sacking of theBhati-ruledLodhruva.[41] ThePrithviraja Vijaya mentions that the activities of the Ghurid army were likeRahu to the Chahamana kingdom (in Hindu mythology, Rahu swallows the Sun, causing asolar eclipse). However, it does not mention any military engagement between the two kingdoms.[42] On its way to Gujarat, the Ghurid army besieged theNaddula (Nadol) fort, which was controlled by theChahamanas of Naddula. Prithviraj's chief minister Kadambavasa advised him not to offer any assistance to the rivals of the Ghurids, and to stay away from this conflict.[42][43] The Chahamanas did not immediately face a Ghurid invasion, because the Chaulukyas of Gujarat defeated Muhammad at theBattle of Kasahrada in 1178 CE, forcing the Ghurids to retreat.[43]
Over the next few years, Muhammad of Ghor consolidated his power in the territory to the west of the Chahamanas, conqueringPeshawar,Sindh, andPunjab. He shifted his base from Ghazna to Punjab, and made attempts to expand his empire eastwards, which brought him into conflict with Prithviraj.[44]
Prithviraja Vijaya mentions that Muhammad of Ghor sent an ambassador to Prithviraj, but does not provide any details.[43]Hasan Nizami'sTaj-ul-Maasir (13th century CE) states that Muhammad sent his chief judgeQiwam-ul Mulk Ruknud Din Hamza to Prithviraj's court. The envoy tried to convince Prithviraj to "abandon belligerence and pursue the path of rectitude", but was unsuccessful. As a result, Muhammad decided to wage a war against Prithviraj.[45]
The medieval Muslim writers mention only one or two battles between the two rulers. TheTabaqat-i Nasiri andTarikh-i-Firishta mention the two Battles of Tarain.Jami-ul-Hikaya andTaj-ul-Maasir mention only the second battle of Tarain, in which Prithviraj was defeated. However, the Hindu and Jain writers state that Prithviraj defeated Muhammad multiple times before being killed:[46]
While these accounts seem to exaggerate the number, it is possible that more than two engagements took place between the Ghurids and the Chahamanas during Prithviraj's reign.[49][50] The early victories mentioned by the Hindu and Jain writers probably refer to Prithviraj's successful repulsion of raids by Ghurid generals.[51]
During 1190–1191 CE, Muhammad of Ghor invaded the Chahamana territory, and captured Tabarhindah or Tabar-e-Hind (identified withBathinda). He placed it under the charge of Zia-ud-din, theQazi ofTulak, supported by 1200 horsemen. When Prithviraj learned about this, marched towards Tabarhindah with his feudatories, including Govindaraja ofDelhi. According to the 16th-century Muslim historianFirishta, his force comprised 200,000 horses and 3,000 elephants.[52]
Muhammad's original plan was to return to his base after conquering Tabarhindah, but when he heard about Prithviraj's march, he decided to put up a fight. He set out with an army, and encountered Prithviraj's forces atTarain.[52] In the ensuing battle, Prithviraj's army decisively defeated the Ghurids. Muhammad of Ghor was injured and forced to retreat.[53]
Prithviraj did not pursue the retreating Ghurid army, not wanting to invade hostile territory or misjudge Ghori's ambition.[54] He only besieged the Ghurid garrison at Tabarhindah, which surrendered after 13 months of siege.[55]
Prithviraj seems to have treated the first battle of Tarain as merely a frontier fight. This view is strengthened by the fact that he made little preparations for any future clash with Muhammad of Ghor. According toPrithviraj Raso, during the period preceding his final confrontation with the Ghurids, he neglected the affairs of the state and spent time in merry-making.[54][32]
Meanwhile, Muhammad of Ghor returned toGhazna, and made preparations to avenge his defeat. According toTabaqat-i Nasiri, he gathered a well-equipped army of 120,000 selectAfghan,Tajik andTurkic horsemen over the next few months. He then marched towards the Chahamana kingdom viaMultan andLahore, aided by Vijayaraja ofJammu.[55]
Prithviraj had been left without any allies as a result of his wars against the neighbouringHindu kings.[56] Nevertheless, he managed to gather a large army to counter the Ghurids. Prithviraj successfully marshaled a sizeable army composed of over 100 Rajput rulers, mainly War elephants, cavalrymen and foot soldiers.[57][58] The 16th century Muslim historianFirishta estimated the strength of Prithviraj's army as 300,000 horses and 3,000 elephants, in addition to a large infantry.[59] This is most likely a gross exaggeration, aimed at emphasizing the scale of the Ghurid victory.[54] Prithviraj wrote a letter to Muhammad of Ghor, promising him no harm if he decided to return to his own country. Muhammad insisted that he needed time to confer his brotherGhiyath al-Din who was ruling from his capital atFirozkoh. According to Firishta, he agreed to a truce until he received an answer from his brother. However, he planned an attack against the Chahamanas.[59]
According toJawami ul-Hikayat, Muhammad assigned a few men to keep the fires in his camp burning at night, while he marched off in another direction with the rest of his army. This gave the Chahamanas an impression that the Ghurid army was still encamped, observing the truce. After reaching several miles away, Muhammad formed four divisions, with 10,000 archers each. He kept the rest of his army in reserve. He ordered the four divisions to launch an attack on the Chahamana camp, and then pretend a retreat.[59]
At dawn, the four divisions of the Ghurid army attacked the Chahamana camp, while Prithviraj was still asleep. After a brief fight, the Ghurid divisions pretended to retreat in accordance with Muhammad's strategy. Prithviraj was thus lured into chasing them, and by the afternoon, the Chahamana army was exhausted as a result of this pursuit. At this point, Muhammad led his reserve force of 10,000 mounted archers and attacked the Chahamanas, decisively defeating them. ChroniclerJuzjani attributed the success of the Ghurid army to the 10,000 mounted archers which eventually overthrow the "infidel host".[60] However, scholars like Dashratha Sharma and R.B. Singh argue that Ghoris' triumph was more a result of deceitful and treacherous strategies rather than the inherent strength of his forces.[61][62] According toTaj-ul-Maasir, Prithviraj's camp lost 100,000 men (including Govindaraja of Delhi) in this debacle. Prithviraj himself tried to escape on a horse, but was pursued and caught near the Sarasvati fort (possibly modernSirsa).[63] Subsequently, Muhammad of Ghor captured Ajmer after killing several thousand defenders, enslaved many more, and destroyed the city's temples.[64]
Prabandha Chintamani by the 14th-century Jain scholarMerutunga states that Prithviraj cut off the ears of one of his ministers, who guided theGhurid invaders to his camp as revenge. Prithviraj was in deep sleep after a day of religious fasting, and therefore, was easily captured.[65]
Hammira Mahakavya by the 15th-century Jain scholar Nayachandra Suri states that after his initial defeat, the Ghurid king raised a fresh army with the support of a neighboring king, and marched to Delhi. Before the battle, he bribed Prithviraj's master of horses and musicians with gold coins. The master of horses had trained Prithviraj's horse to prance to drumbeats. The Ghurids attacked the Chahamana camp just before dawn, when Prithviraj was sleeping. Prithviraj tried to escape on his horse, but his musicians sounded the drums. The horse started prancing, and the invaders easily captured Prithviraj.[65]
According to another Jain text,Prithviraja Prabandha, Prithviraj's minister Kaimbasa and his spear-bearer Pratapasimha were not on good terms. Kaimbasa once complained to king against Pratapasimha, who convinced the king that Kaimbasa was aiding the Ghurids. An angry Prithviraj attempted to kill Kaimbasa with an arrow one night, but ended up killing another man. When his bard Chand Baliddika admonished him, the king dismissed both the bard and the minister.[47] At the time of Ghurid invasion of Delhi, Prithviraj had been sleeping for ten days. When the Ghurids came close, his sister woke him up: Prithviraj tried to flee on a horse, but Kaimbasa helped the Ghurids capture him by telling them about a certain sound that caused his horse to prance.[66]
Most medieval sources state that Prithviraj was taken to the Chahamana capitalAjmer, where Muhammad planned to reinstate him as a Ghuridvassal. Sometime later, Prithviraj rebelled against Muhammad, and was killed for treason.[64] This is corroborated by numismatic evidence: some 'horse-and-bullman'-style coins bearing names of both Prithviraj and "Muhammad bin Sam" were issued from the Delhi mint,[67][68] although another possibility is that the Ghurids initially used Chahamana-style coinage to ensure greater acceptance of their own coinage in the former Chahamana territory.[67] After Prithviraj's death, Muhammad installed the Chahamana princeGovindaraja on the throne of Ajmer, which further supports this theory.[68]
The various sources differ on the exact circumstances:[64]
The 13th-century Persian historianMinhaj-i-Siraj states that Prithviraj was "sent to hell" after being captured. The 16th-century historianFirishta also supports this account.[72] According to historianSatish Chandra, Minhaj's account suggests that Prithviraj was executed immediately after his defeat,[73] but R. B. Singh believes that no such conclusion can be drawn from Minhaj's writings.[72]Viruddha-Vidhi Vidhvansa by the Hindu writer Lakshmidhara is the only source that claims that Prithviraj was killed on the battlefield.[69][74]
ThePrithviraj Raso claims that Prithviraj was taken to Ghazna as a prisoner, and blinded. On hearing this, the poetChand Bardai traveled to Ghazna and tricked Muhammad of Ghor into watching an archery performance by the blind Prithviraj. During this performance, Prithviraj shot the arrow in the direction of Muhammad's voice and killed him.[32] Shortly after, Prithviraj and Chand Bardai killed each other.[75] This is a fictional narrative, not supported by historical evidence: Muhammad of Ghor continued to rule for more than a decade after Prithviraj's death.[76][64]
After Prithviraj's death, the Ghurids appointed his son Govindaraja on the throne of Ajmer as their vassal. In 1192 CE, Prithviraj's younger brotherHariraja dethroned Govindaraja, and recaptured a part of his ancestral kingdom. Govindaraja moved to Ranastambhapura (modernRanthambore), where he established anew Chahamana branch of vassal rulers. Hariraja was later defeated by the Ghurid generalQutb al-Din Aibak.[77]
Prithviraj had a dedicated ministry forpandits (scholars) and poets, which was under the charge of Padmanabha. His court had a number of poets and scholars, including:[56]
Kharatara-Gachchha-Pattavali mentions a debate that took place between theJain monks Jinapati Suri and Padmaprabha at Naranayana (modern Narena near Ajmer). Prithviraj had encamped there at the time. Jinapati was later invited to Ajmer by a rich Jain merchant. There, Prithviraj issued him ajaya-patra (certificate of victory).[4]
According to historian R. B. Singh, at its height, Prithviraj's empire extended fromSutlej river in the west to theBetwa river in the east, and from theHimalayan foothills in the north to the foot of Mount Abu in the south. Thus, it included parts of present-dayRajasthan,Uttrakhand, southernPunjab, northernMadhya Pradesh,Himachal Pradesh and westernUttar Pradesh.[78][better source needed]
However, according to archeologist Rima Hooja and historianR.C. Majumdar, Prithviraj inherited a kingdom that only stretched till modern dayHissar and Sirhind (Bathinda) on north west, and tillDelhi in North. His territories were bounded on southern frontier byGuhilas of Mewar along withChauhans of Nadol, on the eastern border by kingdoms ofBayana,Kachchhapaghatas of Gwalior andGahadavalas of Varnasi and on north-west frontier byempire of the Ghaznavids. Majumdar further asserts that the military campaigns of Prithviraj on his neighbours do not resulted in any annexation of territory.[79][80][81]
Only seven inscriptions dated to Prithviraj's reign are available; none of these were issued by the king himself:[1]
The late medieval (14th and 15th centuries)Sanskrit stories about Prithviraj present him as an unsuccessful king who was memorable only for his defeat against a foreign king.[84]Prabandha-Chintamani andPrithviraja-Prabandha, written by Jain authors, portray him as an inept and unworthy king who was responsible for his own downfall, and whose mistreatment of his devout subordinates turned them into traitors. In contrast, theHammira Mahakavya, also written by a Jain author, presents him as a brave man whose subordinates turned against him out of pure greed. TheHammira Mahakavya, which was probably intended to please a Chauhan lord, retains the elements of the Jain tradition that occur in the twoPrabandha texts, but also attempts to glorify Prithviraj who was an ancestor of the text's heroHammira.[66]
Prithviraj Raso, a legendary text patronized largely by theRajput courts,[85] portrays Prithviraj as a great hero.[84] Over time, Prithviraj came to be portrayed as a patriotic Hindu warrior who fought against Muslim enemies.[86] He is remembered as a king whose reign separated the two major epochs of Indian history.[87] The convention of portraying Prithviraj as aHindu king defeated as part of the Islamic conquest of India appears to have started withHasan Nizami'sTajul-Ma'asir (early 13th century). Nizami presents his narrative as a description of "war with enemies of the faith" and of how "the Islamic way of life was established in the land of the Hindus."[67]Tajul-Ma'asir as well as the later textTabaqat-i Nasiri (c. 1260) present the Ghurid victory over Prithviraj as an important milestone leading to the establishment of theDelhi Sultanate.[88]
The 16th century legends describe him as the ruler of India's political centreDelhi (rather thanAjmer, which was his actual capital).[89] For example,Abul Fazl'sAin-i-Akbari does not associate the Chahamana dynasty with Ajmer at all.[90] Prithviraj's association with Delhi in these legends further strengthened his status as a symbol of pre-Islamic Indian power.[91]
Prithviraj has been described as "the last Hindu emperor" in eulogies. This designation is inaccurate, as several stronger Hindu rulers flourished inSouth India after him, and even some contemporary Hindu rulers in northern India were at least as powerful as him. Nevertheless, the 19th-century British officerJames Tod repeatedly used this term to describe Prithviraj in hisAnnals and Antiquities of Rajast'han. Tod was influenced by the medievalPersian language Muslim accounts, which present Prithviraj as a major ruler and portray his defeat as a major milestone in theIslamic conquest of India. After Tod, several narratives continued to describe Prithviraj as "the last Hindu emperor".[92] For example, the inscriptions at the Ajmer memorial (smarak) to Prithviraj also honour him as "the last Hindu emperor".[93]
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Memorials dedicated to Prithviraj have been constructed in Ajmer and Delhi.[94] A number of Indian films and television series have been made on his life. These include:Prithviraj Chouhan (1924),Prithviraj Sanyogita (1929) by Narayanrao D. Sarpotdar,Prithviraj (1931) by R. N. Vaidya,Prithviraj Sanyogita (1933),Prithivirajan (1942) by B. Sampathkumar,Prithviraj Samyogita (1946) by Najam Naqvi,Samrat Prithviraj Chauhan (1959) by Harsukh Jagneshwar Bhatt,Rani Samyuktha (1962) byD. Yoganand,Samrat Prithviraj (2022) byChandraprakash Dwivedi;[95][96] and the Hindi television serialsMain Dilli Hoon (1998–1999),Dharti Ka Veer Yodha Prithviraj Chauhan (2006–2009), andChakravarti Samrat Prithviraj Chauhan (2025).
The Indian animated filmVeer Yodha Prithviraj Chauhan (2008) was released by Rakesh Prasad. Prithviraj was also one of the first historical figures to be covered inAmar Chitra Katha (No. 25).[97] Many of these modern retellings depict Prithviraj as a flawless hero, and emphasize a message of Hindu national unity.[98]
The video gameAge of Empires II HD: The Forgotten contains a five-chapter campaign titled "Prithviraj".[citation needed]
In 1187 A.D he invaded Gujarat but could not gain much success and concluded a peace treaty with Chaulukya Bhima II. It does not appear that Prithviraj enlarged the boundary of his kingdom or achieved conspicuous military victories such as distinguished many Indian kings during the preceding two centuries. There is no ground to suppose that he was either the most powerful Indian king or the greatest general of his age. The almost contemporary Muslim historians also do not convey any such impression. It is really the romantic tale of Chand Bardai that has cast a spell around him
The Ghurids also suffered a major defeat at the first battle of Tara'in 587 AH/1191 CE, which could have cost Mu'izz al-Din his life, had it not been for the intervention of a 'Khalji stripling'. The frequency of Mu'izz al-Din's dozen or more campaigns also indicates in part their lack of success in subduing the northern Indian Rajputs, until victory in the second battle of Tara'in in 588 AH/1192 CE 'opened the way to the conquest of northern India,..
The Rajput army was far superior in numbers. Prithviraj had succeeded in enlisting the support of about one hundred Rajput princes who rallied round his banner with their elephants, cavalry and infantry
All these wars waged by Prithviraja against his neighbours do not seems to have resulted in any acquisition of territory. He inherited from his predecessors a kingdom which extends upto Hissar and Sirhind in Patial, on the north-west, and Delhi on the north. It was bounded on south by the kingdom of Guhilas of Mewar, and the territories of the Chahamanas of Nadol; who were vassals of the Chaulkya Bhima II, on the east by the kingdoms of the Yaduvanshi of Bayana-sripatha, the Kachchhapaghats of Gwalior and Gahadavals of Kanauj; and on the north west by the kingdoms of Yaminis of Lahore
Meanwhile Prithviraja III (probably born in c. VS 1223 or 1166 A.D), had asecended the throne of Chauhans of Shakambari-Ajmer as a minor in VS 1234. AD. 1177, upon the death of his father Someshwara. He inherited a kingdom that stretched from Thaneshwar (the famed capital of seventh century emperor Harsha Vardhana of the Pushyabhuti line) in the north to Jahazpur (Mewar) in the south
Prithviraja ascended to the throne in 1177 CE. His chief secretary was the Rajput Kadambasa, who was also the jagirdar of south-east Punjab. Prithviraja III's realm extended from Thaneswar in the north to Mewar in the south.
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