Printing is a process for mass reproducingtext andimages using a master form or template. The earliest non-paper products involving printing includecylinder seals and objects such as theCyrus Cylinder and theCylinders of Nabonidus. The earliest known form of printing evolved fromink rubbings made on paper or cloth from texts on stone tablets, used during the sixth century.[1][a] Printing by pressing an inked image onto paper (usingwoodblock printing) appeared later that century.[3] Later developments in printing technology include themovable type invented byBi Sheng around 1040[4][5] and theprinting press invented byJohannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. The technology of printing played a key role in the development of theRenaissance and theScientific Revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.[6]
Woodblock printing is a technique for printing text, images or patterns that was used widely throughout East Asia. It originated in China in antiquity as a method of printing ontextiles and later on paper.[3]
The earliest examples of ink-squeeze rubbings and potential stone printing blocks appear in the mid-sixth century in China. A type of printing called mechanicalwoodblock printing on paper started during the 7th century in theTang dynasty,[3][1] and subsequently spread throughout East Asia.Nara Japan printed theHyakumantō Darani en masse around 770, and distributed them to temples throughout Japan. InKorea, an example of woodblock printing from the eighth century was discovered in 1966. A copy of theBuddhist Dharani Sutra called thePure Light Dharani Sutra (Korean: 무구정광대다라니경;Hanja: 無垢淨光大陀羅尼經;RR: Mugu jeonggwang dae darani-gyeong), discovered inGyeongju, in aSilla dynasty pagoda that was repaired in 751,[8] was undated but must have been created sometime before the reconstruction of theShakyamuni Pagoda ofBulguk Temple, Kyongju Province in 751.[9][10][11][12][13] The document is estimated to have been created no later than 704.[8]
By the ninth century, printing on paper had taken off, and the first completely surviving printed book is theDiamond Sutra (British Library) of 868, uncovered fromDunhuang.[14] By the tenth century, 400,000 copies of some sutras and pictures were printed, and the Confucian classics were in print. A skilled printer could print up to 2,000 double-page sheets per day.[15]
Printing spread early toKorea and Japan, which also used Chineselogograms, but the technique was also used inTurpan andVietnam using a number of other scripts. This technique then spread to Persia and Russia.[16] This technique was transmitted to Europe by around 1400 and was used on paper forold master prints andplaying cards.[17]351-367
Block printing, calledtarsh inArabic, developed inArabic Egypt during the ninth and tenth centuries, mostly for prayers andamulets. There is some evidence to suggest that these print blocks were made from non-wood materials, possiblytin, lead, or clay. The techniques employed are uncertain. Block printing later went out of use during theTimurid Renaissance.[18] The printing technique in Egypt was embraced by reproducing texts on paper strips and supplying them in different copies to meet the demand.[19][20]
Block printing first came to Europe as a method for printing on cloth, where it was common by 1300. Images printed on cloth for religious purposes could be quite large and elaborate. When paper became relatively easily available, around 1400, the technique transferred very quickly to smallwoodcut religious images andplaying cards printed on paper. Theseprints were produced in very large numbers from about 1425 onward.
Around the mid-fifteenth-century,block-books, woodcut books with both text and images, usually carved in the same block, emerged as a cheaper alternative to manuscripts and books printed withmovable type. These were all short, heavily illustrated works, the bestsellers of the day, repeated in many different block-book versions: theArs moriendi and theBiblia pauperum were the most common. There is still some controversy among scholars as to whether their introduction preceded or, in the majority view, followed the introduction of movable type, with the estimated range of dates being between about 1440 and 1460.[21]
Copperplate of 1215–1216 5000cash paper money with ten bronze movable typesJikji, "Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters" from Korea, the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377.Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris
Movable type is the system of printing and typography using movable pieces of metal type, made by casting frommatrices struck byletterpunches. Movable type allowed for much more flexible processes than hand copying or block printing.
Around 1040, the first known movable type system was created in China byBi Sheng out ofporcelain.[5] Bi Sheng used clay type, which broke easily, butWang Zhen by 1298 had carved a more durable type from wood. He also developed a complex system of revolving tables and number-association with written Chinese characters that made typesetting and printing more efficient. Still, the main method in use there remained woodblock printing (xylography), which "proved to be cheaper and more efficient for printing Chinese, with its thousands of characters".[22]
Copper movable type printing originated in China at the beginning of the 12th century. It was used in large-scale printing ofpaper moneyissued by the Northern Song dynasty. Movable type spread to Korea during theGoryeo dynasty.
Around 1230, Koreans invented a metal type movable printing using bronze. TheJikji, published in 1377, is the earliest known metal printed book. Type-casting was used, adapted from the method of casting coins. The character was cut in beech wood, which was then pressed into a soft clay to form a mould, and bronze poured into the mould, and finally the type was polished.[23] Eastern metal movable type was spread to Europe between the late 14th and early 15th centuries.[24][25][26][27][28] The Korean form of metal movable type was described by the French scholar Henri-Jean Martin as "extremely similar to Gutenberg's".[29] Authoritative historiansFrances Gies and Joseph Gies claimed that "The Asian priority of invention movable type is now firmly established, and that Chinese-Korean technique, or a report of it traveled westward is almost certain."[30]
A case of cast metal type pieces and typeset matter in a composing stick
Around 1450,Johannes Gutenberg introduced the first movable type printing system in Europe. He advanced innovations in casting type based on a matrix andhand mould, adaptations to the screw-press, the use of an oil-based ink, and the creation of a softer and more absorbent paper.[31] Gutenberg was the first to create his type pieces from an alloy of lead,tin,antimony, copper and bismuth – the same components still used today.[32] Johannes Gutenberg started work on hisprinting press around 1436, in partnership with Andreas Dritzehen – whom he had previously instructed in gem-cutting – and Andreas Heilmann, the owner of a paper mill.[33][page needed]
Compared towoodblock printing, movable type page setting and printing using a press was faster and more durable. Also, the metal type pieces were sturdier and the lettering more uniform, leading totypography andfonts. The high quality and relatively low price of theGutenberg Bible (1455) established the superiority of movable type for Western languages. The printing press rapidly spread across Europe, leading up to theRenaissance, and laterall around the world.[34]
The steam-powered rotary printing press, invented in 1843 in the United States byRichard M. Hoe,[36] ultimately allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace. Hoe's original design operated at up to 2,000 revolutions per hour where each revolution deposited 4 page images, giving the press a throughput of 8,000 pages per hour.[37] By 1891, TheNew York World and Philadelphia Item were operating presses producing either 90,000 4-page sheets per hour or 48,000 8-page sheets.[38]
The rotary printing press uses impressions curved around a cylinder to print on long continuous rolls of paper or other substrates. Rotary drum printing was later significantly improved byWilliam Bullock. There are multiple types of rotary printing press technologies that are still used today: sheetfedoffset,rotogravure, andflexographic printing.[39]
All printing process are concerned with two kinds of areas on the final output:
Image area (printing areas)
Non-image area (non-printing areas)
After the information has been prepared for production (theprepress step), each printing process has definitive means of separating the image from the non-image areas.
Conventional printing has four types of process:
Planographics, in which the printing and non-printing areas are on the same plane surface and the difference between them is maintained chemically or by physical properties, the examples are:offsetlithography,collotype, and screenless printing.
Relief, in which the printing areas are on a plane surface and the non printing areas are below the surface, examples: flexography and letterpress.
Intaglio, in which the non-printing areas are on a plane surface and the printing area are etched or engraved below the surface, examples: steel die engraving,gravure,etching,collagraph.
Porous orStencil, in which the printing areas are on fine mesh screens through which ink can penetrate, and the non-printing areas are a stencil over the screen to block the flow of ink in those areas, examples:screen printing,stencil duplicator,risograph.
To print an image without a blank area around the image, the non-printing areas must be trimmed after printing. Crop marks can be used to show the printer where the printing area ends, and the non-printing area begins.[45] The part of the image which is trimmed off is calledbleed.
Letterpress printing is a technique ofrelief printing. A worker composes and locksmovable type into the bed of a press,inks it, and presses paper against it to transfer the ink from the type which creates an impression on the paper. There is different paper for different works the quality of paper shows different ink to use.
Letterpress printing was the normal form of printing text from its invention byJohannes Gutenberg in the mid-15th century andremained in wide use for books and other uses until the second half of the 20th century, whenoffset printing was developed. More recently, letterpress printing has seen a revival in an artisanal form.
The 910-ton printing presses at theLas Vegas Review-Journal were the largest in the world when installed in 2000
Offset printing is a widely used modern printing process. This technology is best described as when a positive (right-reading) image on a printing plate is inked and transferred (or "offset") from the plate to a rubber blanket. The blanket image becomes a mirror image of the plate image. An offset transfer moves the image to a printing substrate (typically paper), making the image right-reading again. Offset printing uses a lithographic process which is based on the repulsion of oil and water. The offset process employs a flat (planographic) image carrier (plate) which is mounted on a press cylinder. The image to be printed obtainsink from ink rollers, while the non-printing area attracts an (acidic) film of water, keeping the non-image areas ink-free. Most offset presses use three cylinders: Plate, blanket, impression. Currently, most books and newspapers are printed using offset lithography.
Gravure printing is anintaglio printing technique, where the image being printed is made up of small depressions in the surface of the printing plate. The cells are filled with ink, and the excess is scraped off the surface with a doctor blade. Then a rubber-covered roller presses paper onto the surface of the plate and into contact with the ink in the cells. The printing cylinders are usually made from copper plated steel, which is subsequently chromed, and may be produced by diamond engraving; etching, orlaser ablation.
Gravure printing is known for its ability to produce high-quality, high-resolution images with accurate color reproduction and using viscosity control equipment during production.Ink evaporation control affects the change in the color of the printed image.
Gravure printing is used for long, high-quality print runs such as magazines, mail-order catalogues, packaging and printing onto fabric and wallpaper. It is also used for printing postage stamps and decorative plastic laminates, such as kitchen worktops.
Flexography is a type of relief printing. The relief plates are typically made fromphotopolymers.The process is used for flexible packaging, corrugated board, labels, newspapers and more. In this market it competes with gravure printing by holding 80% of the market in US, 50% in Europe but only 20% in Asia.[46]
Inkjet, used typically to print a small number of books or packaging, and also to print a variety of materials: from high quality papers simulating offset printing, to floor tiles. Inkjet is also used to apply mailing addresses to direct mail pieces
Laser printing (toner printing) mainly used in offices and for transactional printing (bills, bank documents). Laser printing is commonly used by direct mail companies to create variable data letters or coupons.
Pad printing, popular for its ability to print on complex three-dimensional surfaces
Screen printing for a variety of applications ranging from T-shirts to floor tiles, and on uneven surfaces
Intaglio, used mainly for high value documents such as currencies.
Thermal printing, popular in the 1990s for fax printing. Used today for printing labels such as airline baggage tags and individual price labels in supermarket deli counters.
It is estimated that following the innovation of Gutenberg's printing press, the European book output rose from a few million to around one billion copies within a span of less than four centuries.[47]
Samuel Hartlib, who was exiled inBritain and enthusiastic about social and cultural reforms, wrote in 1641 that "the art of printing will so spread knowledge that the common people, knowing their own rights and liberties, will not be governed by way of oppression".[48][49]
In the Muslim world, printing, especially in Arabic scripts, was strongly opposed throughout theearly modern period, partially due to the high artistic renown of the art of traditional calligraphy. However, printing inHebrew orArmenian script was often permitted. Thus, the first movable type printing in theOttoman Empire was in Hebrew in 1493, after which both religious and non-religious texts were able to be printed in Hebrew.[50] According to an imperial ambassador toIstanbul in the middle of the sixteenth century, it was a sin for theTurks, particularly Turkish Muslims, to print religious books. In 1515, SultanSelim I issued a decree under which the practice of printing would be punishable by death. At the end of the sixteenth century, SultanMurad III permitted the sale of non-religious printed books inArabic characters, yet the majority were imported fromItaly.Ibrahim Muteferrika established the first press for printing in Arabic in the Ottoman Empire, against opposition from the calligraphers and parts of theUlama. It operated until 1742, producing altogether seventeen works, all of which were concerned with non-religious, utilitarian matters. Printing did not become common in the Islamic world until the 19th century.[51]
Hebrew language printers were banned from printingguilds in some Germanic states; as a result, Hebrew printing flourished inItaly, beginning in 1470 in Rome, then spreading to other cities including Bari, Pisa, Livorno, and Mantua. Local rulers had the authority to grant or revoke licenses to publish Hebrew books,[52] and many of those printed during this period carry the words 'con licenza de superiori' (indicating their printing having been officially licensed) on their title pages.
It was thought that the introduction of printing 'would strengthen religion and enhance the power of monarchs.'[53] The majority of books were of a religious nature, with the church and crown regulating the content. The consequences of printing 'wrong' material were extreme. Meyrowitz[53] used the example ofWilliam Carter who in 1584 printed a pro-Catholic pamphlet in Protestant-dominated England. The consequence of his action washanging.
Print gave a broader range of readers access to knowledge and enabled later generations to build directly on the intellectual achievements of earlier ones without the changes arising within verbal traditions. Print, according toActon in his 1895 lectureOn the Study of History, gave "assurance that the work of theRenaissance would last, that what was written would be accessible to all, that such an occultation of knowledge and ideas as had depressed theMiddle Ages would never recur, that not an idea would be lost".[48]
Bookprinting in the 16th century
Print was instrumental in changing the social nature of reading.
Elizabeth Eisenstein identifies two long-term effects of the invention of printing. She claims that print created a sustained and uniform reference for knowledge and allowed comparisons of incompatible views.[54]
Critical reading: Because texts finally became accessible to the general population, critical reading emerged as people were able to form their own opinions on texts.
Dangerous reading: Reading was seen as a dangerous pursuit because it was considered rebellious and unsociable, especially in the case of women, because reading could stir up dangerous emotions such as love, and if women could read, they could read love notes.
Creative reading: Printing allowed people to read texts and interpret them creatively, often in very different ways than the author intended.
Extensive reading: Once print made a wide range of texts available, earlier habits of intensive reading of texts from start to finish began to change, and people began reading selected excerpts, allowing much more extensive reading on a wider range of topics.
Private reading: Reading was linked to the rise of individualism because, before print, reading was often a group event in which one person would read to a group. With print, both literacy and the availability of texts increased, and solitary reading became the norm.
The invention of printing also changed the occupational structure of European cities.Printers emerged as a new group of artisans for whom literacy was essential, while the much more labour-intensive occupation of thescribe naturally declined. Proof-correcting arose as a new occupation, while a rise in the numbers ofbooksellers and librarians naturally followed the explosion in the numbers of books.
Gutenberg's printing press had profound impacts on universities as well. Universities were influenced in their "language of scholarship, libraries, curriculum, [and] pedagogy"[55]
Before the invention of the printing press, most written material was in Latin. However, after the invention of printing the number of books printed expanded as well as the vernacular. Latin was not replaced completely, but remained an international language until the eighteenth century.[55]
At this time, universities began establishing accompanying libraries. "Cambridge made the chaplain responsible for the library in the fifteenth century but this position was abolished in 1570 and in 1577 Cambridge established the new office of university librarian. Although, the University of Leuven did not see a need for a university library based on the idea that professor were the library. Libraries also began receiving so many books from gifts and purchases that they began to run out of room. However, the issue was solved in 1589 by a man named Merton who decided books should be stored on horizontal shelves rather thanlecterns.[55]
The printed press changed university libraries in many ways. Professors were finally able to compare the opinions of different authors rather than being forced to look at only one or two specific authors. Textbooks themselves were also being printed in different levels of difficulty, rather than just one introductory text being made available.[55]
laser – a type ofxerography where the charged image is written pixel by pixel using a laser
solid ink printer – wheresolid sticks of ink are melted to make liquid ink or toner
Vendors typically stress the total cost to operate the equipment, involving complex calculations that include all cost factors involved in the operation as well as the capital equipment costs, amortization, etc. For the most part, toner systems are more economical than inkjet in the long run, even though inkjets are less expensive in the initial purchase price.
Professionaldigital printing (usingtoner) primarily uses an electrical charge to transfer toner or liquid ink to the substrate onto which it is printed. Digital print quality has steadily improved from early color and black and white copiers to sophisticated color digital presses such as the Xerox iGen3, the Kodak Nexpress, the HPIndigo Digital Press series, and the InfoPrint 5000. The iGen3 and Nexpress use toner particles and the Indigo uses liquid ink. The InfoPrint 5000 is a full-color, continuous forms inkjet drop-on-demand printing system. All handle variable data, and rival offset in quality. Digital offset presses are also called direct imaging presses, although these presses can receive computer files and automatically turn them into print-ready plates, they cannot insert variable data.
3D printing is a form of manufacturing technology where physical objects are created fromthree-dimensional digital models using 3D printers. The objects are created by laying down or building up many thin layers of material in succession. The technique is also known as additive manufacturing, rapid prototyping, or fabricating.[63]
In the 1980s, 3D printing techniques were considered suitable only for the production of functional or aesthetic prototypes, and a more appropriate term for it at the time wasrapid prototyping.[64][65] As of 2019[update], the precision, repeatability, and material range of 3D printing have increased to the point that some 3D printing processes are considered viable as an industrial-production technology, whereby the termadditive manufacturing can be used synonymously with3D printing.[66][67][68] One of the key advantages of 3D printing[69][70] is the ability to produce very complex shapes or geometries that would be otherwise infeasible to construct by hand, including hollow parts or parts with internaltruss structures to reduce weight.Fused deposition modeling (FDM), which uses a continuous filament of athermoplastic material, is the most common 3D printing process in use as of 2020[update].[71][72]
^An early method of reproduction that has been traced to the second century isthe practice of using needles pushed through a stencil onto the target paper, fabric or plaster, to provide guidelines for subsequent artwork:[2] this cannot reasonably be described as printing.
^abcSuarez, Michael F.; Woudhuysen, H. R., eds. (2013).The Book: A Global History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 574–576.ISBN9780191668746.
^Needham, Joseph;Tsien, Tsuen-hsuin, eds. (2001) [1985].Science and civilisation in China: Paper and printing. Vol. V:1 (Reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 159,201–205.ISBN978-0-521-08690-5.At the present time, the only known authoritative account of the invention of movable type by a commoner named Pi Sheng (c. 990–1051) is the contemporary record of Shen Kua (1031–[1095]) [...] Although the process went into eclipse after its inception, it was a complete invention and fully four hundred years ahead of Gutenberg.
^Tsuen-Hsuin, Tsien;Needham, Joseph (1985).Paper and Printing. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5 part 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 158, 201.
^Thomas Franklin Carter,The Invention of Printing in China and its Spread Westward, The Ronald Press, NY 2nd ed. 1955, pp. 176–78
^Mayor, A Hyatt (1980).Prints and People. Vol. 5–18. Princeton: Metropolitan Museum of Art.ISBN978-0-691-00326-9.
^Shestack, Alan (1967).Master E S, five hundredth anniversary exhibition, September fifth through October third, Philadelphia Museum of Art. Philadelphia Museum of Art.OCLC1976512.
^Beckwith, Christopher I.,Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present, Princeton University Press, 2009,ISBN978-0-691-15034-5
^Polenz, Peter von. (1991).Deutsche Sprachgeschichte vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart: I. Einführung, Grundbegriffe, Deutsch in der frühbürgerlichen Zeit (in German). New York/Berlin: Gruyter, Walter de GmbH.
^Briggs, Asa and Burke, Peter (2002) However, more correctly it should be described as the other way around. Gutenberg's form of metal movable type was extremely similar to the Korean Jikji's, which was printed 78 years prior to the Gutenberg Bible. A Social History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity, Cambridge, pp. 15–23, 61–73.
^Polenz, Peter von. (1991).Deutsche Sprachgeschichte vom Spätmittelalter bis zur Gegenwart: I. Einführung, Grundbegriffe, Deutsch in der frühbürgerlichen Zeit (in German). New York/Berlin: Gruyter, Walter de GmbH.
^abBuringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the 'Rise of the West': Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries",The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–45 (417, table 2)
^abRef: Briggs, Asa andBurke, Peter (2002) A Social History of the Media: from Gutenberg to the Internet, Polity, Cambridge, pp. 15–23, 61–73.
^or soon after; Naim A. Güleryüz,Bizans'tan 20. Yüzyıla – Türk Yahudileri, Gözlem Gazetecilik Basın ve Yayın A.Ş., İstanbul, January 2012, p. 90ISBN978-9944-994-54-5
^abZeng, Minxiang; Zhang, Yanliang (October 22, 2019). "Colloidal nanoparticle inks for printing functional devices: emerging trends and future prospects".Journal of Materials Chemistry A.7 (41):23301–23336.doi:10.1039/C9TA07552F.OSTI1801277.
^Hu, Guohua; Kang, Joohoon; Ng, Leonard W. T.; Zhu, Xiaoxi; Howe, Richard C. T.; Jones, Christopher G.; Hersam, Mark C.;Hasan, Tawfique (May 8, 2018). "Functional inks and printing of two-dimensional materials".Chemical Society Reviews.47 (9):3265–3300.doi:10.1039/C8CS00084K.PMID29667676.
^Paulsen, Jason A.; Renn, Michael; Christenson, Kurt; Plourde, Richard (October 2012). "Printing conformal electronics on 3D structures with Aerosol Jet technology".2012 Future of Instrumentation International Workshop (FIIW) Proceedings. pp. 1–4.doi:10.1109/FIIW.2012.6378343.ISBN978-1-4673-2482-3.
^Lam, Hugo K.S.; Ding, Li; Cheng, T.C.E.; Zhou, Honggeng (January 1, 2019). "The impact of 3D printing implementation on stock returns: A contingent dynamic capabilities perspective".International Journal of Operations & Production Management.39 (6/7/8):935–961.doi:10.1108/IJOPM-01-2019-0075.
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Carter, John, Percy H. Muir, and London International Printing Machinery and Allied Trades Exhibition, (1963. 1967).Printing and the Mind of Man: A Descriptive Catalogue Illustrating the Impact of Print on the Evolution of Western Civilization during Five Centuries: Assisted by Nicolas Barker, H. A. Feisenberger, Howard Nixon and S. H. Steinberg, with an Introductory Essay by Denys Hay. [1st. Ed. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
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Woong-Jin-Wee-In-Jun-Gi No. 11 Jang Young Sil by Baek Sauk Gi. 1987 Woongjin Publishing Co., Ltd. p. 61.On the effects of Gutenberg's printing
