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ThePrincipate was the form of imperial government of theRoman Empire from the beginning of the reign ofAugustus in 27 BC to the end of theCrisis of the Third Century in AD 284, after which it evolved into theDominate.[1][2] The principate was characterized by the reign of a single emperor (princeps) and an effort on the part of the early emperors, at least, to preserve the illusion of the formal continuance, in some aspects, of theRoman Republic.[3][4][5]
'Principate' is etymologically derived from theLatin wordprinceps, meaningchief orfirst, and therefore represents the political regime dominated by such a political leader, whether or not he is formallyhead of state orhead of government. This reflects the principate emperors' assertion that they were merely "first among equals" among the citizens of Rome.
Under the Republic, theprinceps senatus, traditionally the oldest or most honored member of theSenate, had the right to be heard first on any debate.[6]Scipio Aemilianus andhis circle had fostered the (quasi-Platonic) idea that authority should be invested in the worthiest citizen (princeps), who would beneficently guide his peers, an ideal of the patriot statesman later taken up byCicero.[7]
In a more limited and precise chronological sense, the term Principate is applied either to the entire Empire (in the sense of the post-Republican Roman state), or specifically to the earlier of the two phases of Imperial government in the ancientRoman Empire before Rome's military collapse in the West (fall of Rome) in 476 left theByzantine Empire as sole heir. This early Principate phase began when Augustus claimedauctoritas for himself asprinceps, and continued (depending on the source) up to the rule ofCommodus, ofMaximinus Thrax, or ofDiocletian.[8]
The title, in full, ofprinceps senatus /princeps civitatis ("first amongst the senators" / "first amongst the citizens") was first adopted byOctavian Caesar Augustus (27 BC–AD 14), the firstRoman "emperor," who chose not to reintroduce a legalmonarchy. Augustus likely intended to establish political stability desperately needed after the exhaustingcivil wars by ade facto dictatorial regime within theconstitutional framework of theRoman Republic – whatGibbon called "an absolute monarchy disguised by the forms of a commonwealth"[9] – as a more acceptable alternative to, for example, the earlyRoman Kingdom.
Although dynastic pretenses crept in from the start, formalizing this in a monarchic style remained politically perilous;[10] and Octavian was undoubtedly correct to work through established Republican forms to consolidate his power.[11] He began with the powers of aRoman consul, combined with those of aTribune of the plebs; later added the role of thecensor and finally becamepontifex maximus as well.[12][13]
In addition to these legal powers, the principate was also characterized by the emperor being the "ultimate source of patronage".[14] This was due in part to their immense wealth, being namedPater Patriae or "father of the country"[15], and by having a monopoly on political power. To this, emperors would satisfy the senatorial class with appointments to the high offices and to the provinces, effectively removing threats to their power inRome. As such, emperors went to great lengths to control and satisfy the needs of the army (their ultimate source of power) by proving graciousdonatives to the troops upon their ascension and for special events; limiting senatorial control over the legions by way of controlling military provinces through "extraordinary military commands"; and using oaths to bind the military to the emperor personally.[16][17]
Tiberius, likeAugustus, also acquired his powers piecemeal, and was proud to emphasize his place as first citizen: "a good and healthfulprinceps, whom you have invested with such great discretionary power, ought to be the servant of the Senate, and often of the whole citizen body".[18] Thereafter, however, the role of princeps became more institutionalized: asDio Cassius puts it,Caligula "took in one day all the honours which Augustus had with difficulty been induced to accept".[19]
Nevertheless, under this "Principatestricto sensu", the political reality ofautocratic rule by theemperor was still scrupulously masked by forms and conventions ofoligarchic self-rule inherited from the political period of the 'uncrowned'Roman Republic (509 BC–27 BC) under the mottoSenatus Populusque Romanus ("The Senate and people of Rome") orSPQR. Initially, the theory implied the 'first citizen' had to earn his extraordinary position (de facto evolving to nearly absolute monarchy) by merit in the style that Augustus himself had gained the position ofauctoritas.
Imperialpropaganda developed a paternalisticideology, presenting theprinceps as the very incarnation of all virtues attributed to the ideal ruler (much like a Greektyrannos earlier), such as clemency and justice, and military leadership,[21] obliging theprinceps to play this designated role withinRoman society, as his political insurance as well as a moral duty. What specifically was expected of theprinceps seems to have varied according to the times, and the observers:[22]Tiberius, who amassed a huge surplus for the city of Rome, was criticized as a miser,[23] while his successorCaligula was criticized for his lavish spending on games and spectacles.[24]
Generally speaking, it was expected of the Emperor to be generous but not frivolous, not just as a good ruler but also with hispersonal fortune (as in the proverbial "bread and circuses" –panem et circenses) providing occasional public games, gladiators, chariot races and artistic shows. Large distributions of food for the public and charitable institutions also served as popularity boosters, while the construction of public works provided paid employment for the poor.
After his victory at Actium in 31 B.C.,Octavian, the adoptive son and heir of Caesar, became the sole ruler of Rome and its Empire.[25] With support from the army and allies from various backgrounds, he concentrated immense power in his hands, built upon the accumulation of former republican magistracies. From 31 to 27 B.C., he established a new regime: thePrincipate.[26] In a Senate session on January 27 B.C., he appeared to restore theres publica (the Republic) by returning it to the Senate and the people. However, in practice, the Senate retained control over only a few provinces without legions. Octavian, who soon after received the title ofAugustus, kept his vast powers and was entrusted with the administration of frontier provinces, thereby holding command over the armies.[27] Augustus's title highlighted his sacred and divine character, giving his decisions considerable weight even though they lacked an official institutional basis.
In 23 B.C., he was granted full and lifelongtribunician power, the civilian foundation of his authority, and amajus proconsular imperium (greater than that of the proconsuls of the senatorial provinces). In 2 B.C., he was awarded the titleFather of the Country,[28] symbolically placing the entire Roman people under his protection. Everywhere, he was seen as the "first citizen", theprinceps. Augustus influenced the election of magistrates through recommendations, and directed foreign policy and diplomacy. He commanded significant financial resources through his personal wealth (partially inherited from Caesar), revenues from Egypt (his private domain), and various taxes.[27] However, as he spent heavily on administration, wars, and the upkeep of 200,000 impoverished citizens, the Empire’s budget faced difficulties towards the end of his reign. Augustus lost all his direct heirs in succession, so he prepared his stepson,Tiberius, to succeed him without challenge.[29]
Augustus relied onhomines novi or “new men”: knights, military men, prominent figures from Italian towns, and senators who had joined his cause in hopes of securing key positions.[30] Conservative by nature, he pursued policies that restricted slaves and limitedmanumissions. Favoring moral order and family values, he enacted laws against celibacy and "immoral behavior."
Augustus completed the pacification of theCantabri andAstures inSpain. The Empire expanded to theDanube with the creation of the provinces ofMoesia andPannonia. TheAlpine peoples were finally subdued by Tiberius andDrusus, and divided into the provinces ofNoricum,Raetia, and theMaritime Alps.[31] The prolonged war against the Germans led the army as far as theWeser andElbe rivers. However, in the year 9, the Germanic leaderArminius revolted, annihilating three legions underVarus in theTeutoburg Forest.Germania was ultimately abandoned by Tiberius in 17, and two sectors along the left bank of the Rhine were then calledGermania.[25][27]
Tiberius (14-37), the son ofLivia from her first marriage and stepson of Augustus, became emperor at the age of 56, having already proven himself as a remarkable military leader. Highly conservative, he ruled in line with Augustus' policies.[32] Augustus had compelled him to adoptGermanicus, who was intended as his successor. However, Germanicus died in the East in 19.Sejanus, the prefect of the Praetorian Guard, then maneuvered to make himself indispensable to Tiberius, eliminating rivals from the imperial family. Eventually, he was denounced byAntonia, Germanicus' mother, arrested, and swiftly executed. Tiberius ended his reign by instilling terror in Rome and condemning many senators.[32] Unlike Augustus, however, Tiberius was a frugal emperor.[27]
Caligula (37-41), the son of Germanicus, was soon accused of madness and was assassinated by his own guard before completing his fourth year of rule. The Praetorians then hailed Caligula’s uncle,Claudius I (41-54), one of the few survivors of Sejanus’ schemes, as emperor.[33]
Under Claudius, the freedmenNarcissus andPallas established the imperial chancery and thefiscus (imperial treasury), providing the emperors with the institutions they had previously lacked.[34] Claudius was supportive of the promotion of provincials, granting citizenship to several Alpine peoples and even admitting notable Gauls fromTransalpine Gaul (beyond Cisalpine Gaul and Provence) into the Senate. He completed the conquest ofMauretania and began imposing Roman rule inBritain.[27]
The imperial court was a hotbed of intrigue. Claudius' fourth wife,Messalina, was unfaithful to him, eventually leading to her execution.[35]Agrippina, his niece and fifth wife, schemed to the extent that she succeeded in getting the emperor to adopt her son from a previous marriage,Nero. In 54, she poisoned the emperor, and despite his age of only 17, the Praetorians accepted her son as emperor.[35]
Nero initially ruled under his mother’s influence but had her assassinated in 59. He followed the guidance ofBurrus and theyounger Seneca until Burrus' (natural) death in 62.[36] Afterward, he dismissed Seneca and ruled alone.[37]
After Nero’s suicide in 68 AD, the Roman Empire faced a political crisis known as theYear of the Four Emperors.[38] This period of turmoil saw the successive rise and fall ofGalba,Otho, andVitellius, each declared emperor by their respective legions but swiftly overthrown.[39] Stability was restored whenVespasian (69–79), a general commanding theEastern armies, emerged victorious. Supported by his military might and the allegiance of thePraetorian Guard, Vespasian founded theFlavian dynasty, ushering in an era of consolidation and reform.[38]
Vespasian is credited with stabilizing the Empire’s finances, heavily depleted after Nero’s reign and the civil wars, by imposing new taxes and restoring discipline in provincial governance.[38] His reign also saw the beginning of major construction projects, including the initiation of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as theColosseum, which symbolized Roman engineering prowess and cultural grandeur.[32]
His elder son,Titus (79–81), succeeded him and is remembered for his military success during theJewish War, culminating in the capture ofJerusalem in 70 AD and the destruction of theSecond Temple. Despite his brief reign, Titus won the favor of the Roman populace for his generosity in responding to disasters such as the eruption ofMount Vesuvius in 79 AD and a fire in Rome.[39]
Domitian (81–96), the younger son, consolidated the gains of his predecessors but ruled with an increasinglyautocratic style.[39] He expanded the Empire's frontiers, strengthening defenses inGermania and Britain, and enhanced the administrative efficiency of the imperial government, particularly in the provinces.[35] However, his authoritarian rule and the execution of many senators led to growing discontent among Rome’s elite. Ultimately, he was assassinated in 96 AD in a palace conspiracy, bringing the Flavian dynasty to an end.[38][35]
Despite the dynasty's controversial reputation, the Flavians left a lasting legacy by restoring stability to the Empire, promoting monumental architecture, and laying the groundwork for the prosperity of the subsequent Antonine period.[35]
The Senate had already chosen a replacement in the person ofNerva (96-98), who founded theAntonine dynasty.[40] He adopted his successor,Trajan (98-117), a Roman fromHispania. Five out of six remarkable emperors in this dynasty selected their successor during their lifetimes, as they had no sons, yet the choice always fell on close relatives.[40] The reigns of Trajan and his successorHadrian (117-138) mark the peak of the Roman Empire.[41]Trajan, while fostering agriculture and developing the administration, conqueredDacia, theParthian Empire, and annexedArabia. However, the conquest ofParthia did not last beyond him.[41]
Emperor Hadrian focused on a more defensive policy. During his reign, significant fortifications developed in various border regions, notably in Africa and Britain, often referred to aslimes.[41] Additionally, Hadrian worked to improve the empire's functioning. Continuing efforts begun by previous emperors, he promoted the integration of provincials, notably through the creation of honorary colonies: while the termcolony once mainly referred to the settlement of Roman colonists, it now became an honorary title for a city, granting Roman citizenship to all its inhabitants.[41][42]
UnderAntoninus Pius (138-161), a new distinction appeared in law between thehonestiores (wealthy) andhumiliores (poor), with the latter facing harsher punishments for the same offenses.[43]Marcus Aurelius (161-180), known as a Stoic philosopher-emperor, spent 15 years on the Danube frontier fighting against barbarian invasions. The empire was entering a less favorable period: its neighbors at the borders seemed more powerful, it faced agrarian difficulties, famines, and the outbreak of theAntonine Plague.[44] Marcus Aurelius chose his son,Commodus (180-192), as his successor. Commodus' assassination ended the Antonine dynasty.[35]
The assassination of Commodus, the last of the Antonines, in December 192, opened a political crisis similar to the one at the end of theJulio-Claudian dynasty. ThePraetorian Guard assassinated the new emperorPertinax and broughtDidius Julianus to power through an auction for the imperial title.[35][45] Ultimately, the general of the Danube army, the AfricanSeptimius Severus (193-211), took power in 193. He rewarded the army by increasing its ranks and strengthening imperial power.[46] The Praetorians, who had made and unmade many emperors, were recruited from the Danube legions[38] loyal to Septimius Severus. The cultural mixing brought by the empire increased, and religions from the East became more popular in the Empire, particularly the cult ofMithras among the military.[47][48] This aspect has sometimes been exaggerated by historians, who described the Severans as an Eastern dynasty, a judgment that is now considerably revised.[29]
Severus named his two sons Augustus, but upon his death,Caracalla (211-217) hastily killed his young brotherGeta.[49] Caracalla is remembered for the Edict of 212 (Constitutio Antoniniana), which granted Roman citizenship to nearly all free inhabitants of the Empire, significantly altering its social structure.[50][51] However, Caracalla was assassinated on the Parthian front by thePraetorian PrefectMacrinus (217-218), who briefly succeeded him but failed to hold onto power for long.[26]
Caracalla’s cousin,Elagabalus (218-222), then became emperor, primarily under the influence of his grandmother, Julia Maesa, who had orchestrated his ascent. Elagabalus’ fixation on the cult of the sun godElagabal led to widespread dissatisfaction and unrest, culminating in his assassination by the Praetorians.[52] His cousinSeverus Alexander (222-235) succeeded him, but his relatively weak leadership and reliance on his mother’s advice alienated the military.[53] After Severus Alexander’s assassination, the Empire entered a period of severe instability, often referred to as the "Crisis of the Third Century" or "military anarchy." Althoughimperial power fluctuated, it was never entirely absent during this tumultuous era.[54][55]
The emperors hold the title ofimperator, the supreme commander of the armies. Throughout the Roman Empire, victory was a powerful factor in strengthening imperial power. A defeated emperor could easily have his power contested by ambitious generals.[35][46] All emperors made it a habit to be electedconsul to demonstrate the continuity between republican institutions and the principate. This also grants themimperium, or the authority to command. They also heldimperium proconsulare, which gave them the power to govern all provinces. As holders ofpotestas tribunicia, they possessedintercessio, the right to oppose any decision made by the magistrates of the empire. LikeJulius Caesar, they carried the title ofpontifex maximus, making them the heads of Roman religion.[45][56] They also received an oath of personal loyalty from all inhabitants of the Empire. Thanks toimperium, the emperor was all-powerful.[29][26]
Both the Senate and the people were deeply fearful of civil war with each succession. Therefore, they eagerly accepted the idea that a descendant of the reigning prince would succeed his father. One of the emperor’s duties was to ensure a peaceful transmission of the throne. The most logical choice, even in the eyes of the Romans, was to designate his son or adopt one. When a reigning emperor successfully passed on his power to a successor, it was seen as the completion of a successful reign.[57][58] In fact, while hereditary succession was not a principle of public law, it was an aristocratic practice accepted by Roman opinion. In times of crisis, a general celebrated in triumph by his soldiers could, through military force, rise to the supreme power.[38][53] ThePraetorian Guard, tasked with guarding the emperor’s security, played an increasing role in the plots and assassinations that marked the imperial period.[54]
The role ofpontifex maximus bestowed upon emperors a sacred character. Additionally, in popular belief,[56] figures likeScipio Africanus,Marius, andSulla had a divine character. Caesar developed a legend of divinity around himself, claiming descent fromVenus andAeneas.[35] Emperor Augustus established theimperial cult, deifying Caesar, and as his heir, he elevated himself above humanity.[58][29] He proclaimed himself the son ofApollo. Augustus also associated the entire community with the cult of the family genius, thus becoming the father of all, which is why he earned the titlepater patriae (father of the fatherland).[45] Augustus refused to be deified during his lifetime but allowed temples and altars dedicated to him, especially in the East, where it was common for rulers to be viewed as living gods, provided his name was associated with the deified Rome. This movement continued after his death. All emperors aligned themselves with the protection of a god.[26] Gradually, they were seen as living gods throughout the Empire.[53] After their deaths, they receivedapotheosis. The Antonines, for example, placedJupiter Capitolinus as the supreme god, but when in Greece, Hadrian invokedZeus Olympios or Panhellenios, accompanied by Tyche (Fortune) as protector.[59] During his reign, the divinization of the living emperor further progressed, especially in the East. The imperial ideology took on more philosophical aspects, where the emperor’s success was attributed to his merit (virtus) and divine protection.[60]
The imperial cult also served as a means of uniting the diverse peoples of the Empire, with their varying cultures and beliefs, around respect for Roman power through the deified emperor.[54] Across the Empire, temples dedicated to the imperial cult were either restored or newly constructed. Ceremonies were held in honor of the emperor, providing an opportunity for the community to gather in processions, engage in sacrifices, enjoy banquets, and participate in various spectacles.[61]
Between the reign of Augustus and that of Commodus, the Roman Empire underwent profound changes, especially in the West. The provinces became significantly Romanized: many provincials were granted Roman citizenship, and Roman ways of life and symbols spread. The use of Latin, Roman urban planning, and public baths became cultural traits shared primarily by the local aristocracies at first, from Africa toCaledonia.[56][58][62] This gradual integration of provincials changed the composition of the ruling class of the empire. By the160s, only half of the senators were still fromItaly, with the rest coming from the East, Gaul, Hispania, Africa, and other regions.[29][53] However, these great senatorial families, as well as the upper echelons of the equestrian order, were thoroughly Romanized, regardless of their origins, with multiple marriages and alliances diminishing the significance of these regional backgrounds.[41]
For the empire's leaders, it became a shared heritage administered in the name of the emperor. While attachment to one's homeland was still respected as a sign of the vitality of civic ideals, it was Roman identity, orRomanitas, that provided the foundation for a common political space.[54] For the more modest populations, the changes were also profound, though more difficult to discern:Latin spread even among the humbler people, even if local languages persisted, and Roman ways of life were widely adopted.[45] With the stabilization of the borders, the Roman army organized itself around large camps and border regions, and the recruitment of soldiers became increasingly regional, without compromising the army's quality.[63][55]
The Roman Empire was divided into provinces, each with distinct administrative structures.
In thesenatorial provinces, the governor, either aproconsul or apropraetor, was appointed by the Senate. During Augustus’ reign, these governors were selected by lot for a one-year term and assisted by quaestors who handled financial administration. A procurator, a member of the equestrian order, managed the emperor's interests, such as mines, estates, and special taxes. The senatorial provinces were peaceful, and no legions were stationed permanently in them.[29][58]
In theimperial provinces, the governor, alegate orprocurator, was appointed by the emperor. Egypt, in particular, was governed by a prefect from the equestrian order appointed by the emperor. However, the emperor had oversight powers over all provinces, even appointing extraordinary legates in the senatorial provinces.[62][45] Italy, unlike other provinces, had a privileged status. All free inhabitants of Italy wereRoman citizens and were exempt from land taxes.[63][41]
Italy was not considered a province but was directly administered by the Senate of Rome. Under the reign of Hadrian, it was divided into four districts that were not under the Senate's control. This division was reversed by Hadrian's successor,Antoninus Pius, following pressure from the senators.[45][53]
Governors were typically appointed for terms not exceeding three years. They maintained close communication with the central government through ongoing correspondence. Their duties included overseeing taxes, maintaining public order, conducting censuses, and ensuring the protection of property.[56] Governors had minimal administrative staff, and their primary involvement in provincial life was in judicial matters, managing disturbances, and addressing financial difficulties within cities. Most administrative tasks were handled locally within the city framework, which was considered by Romans to be the ideal way of life. Where cities did not exist, especially in the West, the Romans established them. The more just administration of the Empire compared to the Republic helped the inhabitants of the provinces to form a deeper attachment to Roman rule.[54][55]
In the capital, the emperor was assisted by various bodies and individuals in governance. The imperial council, which helped in making key decisions, consisted of men chosen for their military, legal, or diplomatic expertise. Over time, the council became permanent and gained significant influence in the governance of the Empire.Hadrian restructured the council, predominantly selecting jurists.[64] Thepraetorian prefect was one of the most important figures in the imperial entourage, commanding thePraetorian Guard and serving as second-in-command during military expeditions. His growing power even posed a threat to the imperial authority. Under Augustus, the highest positions were held by members of the senatorial or equestrian classes, while lower positions were given to the emperor's freedmen or even slaves from his household.[65] This system remained in place until the reign of Hadrian, who entrusted the management of offices to equestrians, relegating the freedmen to subordinate roles.[66][67]
Until the mid-2nd century, the Roman army remained a force of conquest.Augustus annexedIllyricum and unsuccessfully attempted to conquerGermania. He established theRhine andDanube as the Empire's borders.Claudius conquered Britain, and Trajan expanded intoDacia, Arabia, and briefly Parthia.[42] From Hadrian onwards, the primary focus shifted from territorial expansion to maintaining the Empire. Hadrian abandonedArmenia,Mesopotamia, andAssyria, establishing peace with theParthians. The eastern border of the Empire became theEuphrates, consolidated by thelimes.[55][45]
One of Hadrian’s priorities was to protect the Roman Empire from barbarian invasions, leading him to build the famousHadrian's Wall in northern Britain. This wall stretched 120 km from the mouth of theTyne River toSolway,[41] featuring 300 towers and 17 fortified camps.[42] In Germania, theDecumates Fields were similarly protected by limes running fromMainz toRegensburg.[64][63][54] Hadrian’s successors continued this fortification strategy along the borders of Germania, the East, and Africa, erecting walls and structures that eventually earned the collective name "limes" (in Latin, meaning a border patrol road). Strategicroads were built to facilitate movement and defend against attacks, covering a total of 9,000 km of frontier.[53]
The Roman army, focused on defending these borders, was composed of around 400,000 soldiers spread across 30legions. The soldiers included about 150,000 Roman citizens who served for 20 years, supplemented byauxiliary troops recruited from non-citizens. These auxiliaries were granted Roman citizenship after 25 years of service. From Hadrian’s time, some auxiliary troops maintained their traditional arms and practices,[62] distinguishing them from the Roman legions.[68] The Romans faced increasing difficulty recruiting soldiers from Italy, as the Italian population increasingly resisted military service. Consequently, recruits were drawn from provinces, particularly those less Romanized. While thePraetorian Guard and officers (centurions) continued to be recruited from Italy, the army as a whole became a professional force composed of various peoples from across the Empire.[56]
The cohesion of the Roman army was founded on rigorous training, strict discipline, and a distinctive religious culture centered around traditional Roman gods and theimperial cult. The military engineers were responsible for constructing vital infrastructure like canals, roads,aqueducts, and fortifications of cities.[66][67] The army’s presence along the borders played a significant role in the economic development of these regions and was a powerful tool ofRomanization.[29][58]
The 80 million inhabitants of the Roman Empire belonged to different social groups based on birth or wealth. One could be born a slave, a free man, or a Roman citizen.Slaves had no rights and led very harsh lives, often working in large estates or mines. In the cities, their condition was somewhat better as they worked as domestics, craftsmen, and even teachers or artists for the more educated ones.[69][70] Some slaves ran shops and paid their masters for the privilege of working, which allowed them to save for their manumission (freedom).[71]
The subjects of the Empire were free men who were not Roman citizens. They could testify in court but were required to pay thetributum, a direct tax.[72] Roman citizenship could be obtained by birth, decree, or after 25 years of military service.[73] Roman citizens did not pay thetributum. Most citizens had modest occupations, and in Rome, 200,000 poor citizens relied on free grain distributions (theannona) to survive.[74][62]
The wealthiest individuals were part of theequestrian or senatorial orders, appointed by the emperor. In this hierarchical society, there were distinctions between the senatorial order and the decurional order. During Augustus's reign, the equestrian order was at his disposal and became the main source of imperial administration.[53]Nobilitas (nobiles) were defined by one's origin rather than status, though over time, the social markers ofnobilitas diminished. By the 2nd century, the procession of portraits, once an important symbol of status, had become reserved solely for imperial funerals.[75][41]
In the early Empire, society was not rigidly fixed. Slaves, especially those in urban areas, could often be freed by their masters.[27] Gradually, all free men gained citizenship, and in 212 AD,the Edict of Caracalla made all free men Roman citizens, althoughdediticii (Barbarians) were excluded from this privilege.[29][45] For instance, inVolubilis, the isolated peasants and semi-nomadic tribes around the city remained subjects of the Empire, with a few leaders rewarded with citizenship for their loyalty.[76][63]
Over time, distinctions were made between thehonestiores (the powerful) and thehumiliores (the humble). These social categories replaced the earlier legal distinction between citizens and non-citizens, with the rich and powerful receiving preferential treatment in the courts over the poor.[66][56]
In almost all cities of the empire, life revolved around Roman lines. According to some estimates,Rome, the capital, had over one million inhabitants during the High Empire.[77] The Romans simply referred to it asurbs, the city. It was, along withAlexandria, the largest city in the Roman world. Since the 1st century, the city had been greatly beautified by the emperors, with numerous monuments symbolizing the grandeur of Rome and the Roman way of life. Theforums, which were places for political life during the Republic, transformed into monumental complexes includingbasilicas, manytemples, triumphal arches, and libraries.[77] ThePalatine Hill was home to the imperial palaces, including the House of Augustus. However, Rome was primarily, in the popular imagination, known as the city of games. Several exceptional monuments were dedicated to these, such as the Circus Maximus between the Palatine andAventine hills, and theColosseum, the largestamphitheater in the Roman world, dedicated toludi (public games), particularlygladiatorial combat.[78]
TheRoman baths appeared at the end of the Republic, and emperors built many baths for the entertainment of the Romanplebs.[79] To provide the water needed for the baths and the growing population, many aqueducts were constructed. By the 1st century, these aqueducts could deliver up to 992,000 cubic meters of water to the city every 24 hours.[80] Rome had grown in a disorganized manner over the centuries. The streets were narrow and winding. After the great fire of Rome in 64 AD,Nero had the city rebuilt with wider, more spacious roads. The wealthiest lived in largevillas, while the poorer classes resided in apartment buildings, known asinsulae.[81]
Major cities such asCarthage andAntioch flourished. The Romans built cities across the Empire following the regular grid plan called thehippodamian plan. The city was organized around two main streets: thecardo (north-south axis) and thedecumanus (east-west axis). Typical Roman monuments were found in these cities, including forums, basilicas, temples, and amphitheaters. Each city was headed by a local senate called thecuria, composed of wealthy citizens of the Empire, forming theordo decurionum.[80] It was within this council that magistrates were elected:aediles (in charge of market and street police),duumviri (magistrates with judicial responsibilities), andduumviri quinquennales (elected every five years to take on censorial functions). Theordo decurionum was responsible for managing the city's finances (pecunia publica), maintaining public order, and dealing with the central power.[81]
The decurions and, particularly, the magistrates, financed much of the construction of monuments and temples from their own funds. They could also voluntarily add a personal donation to legally required sums. This practice, known asevergetism, played a significant role in the construction and life of the cities.Evergetism allowed the city's aristocrats to demonstrate their generosity and wealth, often serving as a tool for self-celebration, supporting family strategies, and ensuring political cohesion.[77] The monument donated would remind future generations of the family's glory, while at the same time, strengthening political and social unity.Evergetism could also be seen as a reciprocal act, a counter-gift that responded to the respect the city showed the donor and the political power it granted. Festivals, spectacles, and various distributions, often stemming fromevergetism, contributed to the creation and maintenance of a municipal culture and civic unity in the cities.[78] While past historiography suggested thatevergetism might explain the abandonment of political duties by local aristocracies, this hypothesis is no longer widely accepted, and it is now understood that there was no widespread desertion of the curiae.[77]
In the western cities of the empire, Latin spread, while the east remained faithful to theGreek language.[82]
In general, most of the wealth produced comes from the countryside andagriculture. Under the High Empire, the trend toward land concentration continued. Thenobilitas (Roman aristocracy) and Eastern temples owned vast estates. However, the largest landowner in the empire was the emperor himself, who expanded his properties by confiscating those of his opponents.[83] The center of the large estate, orlatifundium, was theRoman villa, the master's residence with its dependencies. While the ideal was autarky, as landownership and self-sufficiency were considered the foundation of social dignity, there were also significant regions dedicated to commercial crops. The main crop was grain, which fed the entire population of the estate.[72] Roman agronomists advised reserving part of the land for commercial crops like vines and olive trees. Small property did not disappear; it remained the ideal in Roman society, but its importance decreased. Although agriculture remained technically stagnant under the Empire, certain practices spread, and some authors suggest that productivity gains may have occurred.[67]
The main artisanal activities took place in both rural areas and cities: textile production, tool manufacturing and maintenance, and pottery production. For a long time, historians considered ancient cities as merely consumer hubs, but after significant debate, this view has been significantly revised.[67] Important mining regions existed in Spain and the Danubian regions, though here too, technological progress was minimal. Manual labor and mercantile activity were considered beneath the educated classes, and reserved for lower classes and slaves. The existence of slaves may have also hinderedtechnological progress. However, recent archaeological research has strongly revised these judgments, with archaeologists and historians agreeing on the significant and early diffusion of watermills in the Roman Empire.[72]
The peace and prosperity of the High Empire led to an increase in commercial activities. The Mediterranean at the heart of the Roman Empire witnessed intense trade. Piracy was greatly reduced thanks to the emperor's naval fleets which were in patrol constantly.[83] Ships increasingly ventured into the open sea to shorten travel times, but for shorter or medium-range trips, sailors preferred coastal cabotage. Navigation in theMediterranean was allowed from March to October, and no navigation occurred during the winter months. Major Mediterranean ports includedOstia (Rome’s port),Alexandria inEgypt, andCarthage inAfrica.[74] Commercial links also extended to theBaltic, and sub-Saharan Africa via trans-Saharan caravans,India, andChina, showing that the empire was not a closed space.[84] Romans’ taste for luxury goods fueled international trade. In this sense, the Empire extended the last two centuries of the Republic, but over time, Italian economic dominance in areas such ashigh-quality ceramics,amphorae, and wines gradually gave way to provincial productions.
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