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Pride is a humansecondary emotion characterized by a sense of security with one'sidentity, performance, or accomplishments. It is often considered the opposite ofshame[1] and, depending on context, may be viewed as either avirtue or avice. Typically, pride arises frompraise, independentself-reflection, and/or a fulfilled feeling ofbelonging.
The wordpride may refer to group identity. Manifestations include one's ethnicity. It is notably known forBlack Pride, which gained historical momentum during theU.S. Civil Rights Movement. Then, it became known for independence struggles—Feminist Pride, rooted in thewomen's rights movement andgender equality struggles andsexual identity (for example,Gay Pride orLGBT Pride, rising in visibility following theStonewall riots). In this context of minority groups, the display of pride is in defiance of people outside of the minority in question trying to instill them with a sense of shame. There is also the sense of pride that can accompanynational identity (patriotism), regional identity, or other affiliations (for example, proud to be auniversityalumnus). In this context, the pride is more literal.
It may also refer to foolhardiness,[2] or a corrupt, irrational sense of one's personal value,status, or accomplishments,[3] and in this sense,pride can be usedsynonymously withhubris orvanity. In this sense it has classical theological interpretation as one of theseven deadly sins. When viewed as a virtue, pride in one's abilities is known as virtuous pride, greatness of soul, ormagnanimity, but when viewed as a vice, it is often known to be self-idolatry, sadistic contempt orvainglory.[4]
The word"proud" originates fromlateOld English "prut", likely derived from theOld French meaning "brave" or "valiant" (11th century), which later becamepreux in French. This, in turn, comes from theLate Latinprodis, meaning "useful," related to the Latinprodesse, "to be of use."[5] The sense of "having a high opinion of oneself," which does not exist inFrench, may reflect the Anglo-Saxons' perception of the Norman knights, who referred to themselves as "proud."[6]
Aristotle identified pride (megalopsuchia, variously translated as proper pride, the greatness of soul and magnanimity)[7] as the crown of the virtues, distinguishing it from vanity, temperance and humility, thus:
By a high-minded man we seem to mean one who claims much and deserves much: for he who claims much without deserving it is a fool; but the possessor of a virtue is never foolish or silly. The man we have described, then, is high-minded. He who deserves little and claims little is temperate [or modest], but not high-minded: for high-mindedness [or greatness of soul] implies greatness, just as beauty implies stature; small men may be neat and well proportioned, but cannot be called beautiful.[8]
He then concludes that,
High-mindedness, then, seems to be the crowning grace, as it were, of the virtues; it makes them greater, and cannot exist without them. And on this account it is a hard thing to be truly high-minded; for it is impossible without the union of all the virtues.[8]
By contrast, Aristotle defined the vice of hubris as follows:
to cause shame to the victim, not in order that anything may happen to you, nor because anything has happened to you, but merely for your own gratification. Hubris is not the requital of past injuries; this is revenge. As for the pleasure in hubris, its cause is this: naive men think that by ill-treating others they make their own superiority the greater.[9]
Thus, although pride and hubris are often deemed the same thing, for Aristotle and many philosophers hubris is an entirely different thing from pride.[10]
Pride, when classified as an emotion or passion, is both cognitive and evaluative; its object, that it cognizes and evaluates, is the self and its properties, or something the proud individual identifies with.[3] The field of psychology classifies it withguilt and shame as aself-conscious emotion that results from the evaluations of oneself and one's behavior according to internal and external standards.[11] Pride results from satisfying or conforming to a standard; guilt or shame from defying it.
In psychological terms, positive pride is a "pleasant, sometimes exhilarating, emotion that results from a positive self-evaluation."[12] It was added to the University of California, Davis, "Set of Emotion Expressions", as one of three "self-conscious" emotions known to have recognizableexpressions (along withembarrassment andshame).[13]
The term "fiero" was coined by Italian psychologist Isabella Poggi to describe the pride experienced and expressed in the moments following a personal triumph over adversity.[14] Facial expressions and gestures that demonstrate pride can involve a lifting of the chin, smiles, or arms on hips to demonstrate victory. Individuals may implicitly grant status to others based solely on their expressions of pride, even in cases in which they wish to avoid doing so. Indeed, some studies indicate that the nonverbal expression of pride conveys a message that is automatically perceived by others about a person's high social status in a group.[15]
Behaviorally, pride can also be expressed by adopting an expanded posture in which the head is tilted back and the arms extended out from the body. This postural display is innate, as it is shown in congenitally blind individuals who have lacked the opportunity to see it in others.[16]
Pride results from self-directed satisfaction with meeting personal goals; for example, positive performance outcomes elicit pride in a person when the event is appraised as having been caused by that person alone.[17][full citation needed]
Pride as a display of the strong self that promotes feelings of similarity to strong others, as well as differentiation from weak others. Seen in this light, pride can be conceptualized as a hierarchy-enhancing emotion, as its experience and display helps rid negotiations of conflict.[18]
Pride involves exhilaratedpleasure and a feeling of accomplishment. It is related to "more positive behaviors and outcomes in the area where the individual is proud."[19][full citation needed] Pride is associated with positive social behaviors such as helping others and public expression of achievement. Along with hope, it is an emotion that facilitates performance attainment, as it can help trigger and sustain focused efforts, helping individuals prepare for upcoming evaluative events. It may also help enhance the quality and flexibility of the effort expended.[20][full citation needed] Pride can enhance creativity, productivity, andaltruism.[21][full citation needed] Researchers have found that among African-American youth, pride is associated with a higherGPA in less socioeconomically advantaged neighborhoods, whereas in more advantaged neighborhoods, pride is associated with a lower GPA.[22]
In the field ofeconomic psychology, pride is conceptualized on a spectrum ranging from "proper pride," associated with genuine achievements, and "false pride," which can be maladaptive or even pathological. Lea et al. examined the role of pride in various economic situations. They claim thatin all cases pride is involved because economic decisions are not taken in isolation from one another, but are linked together by the selfhood of the people who take them[clarification needed].[23] Understood in this way, pride is an emotional state that works to ensure that people take financial decisions that are in their long-term interests, even when in the short term they would appear irrational.
Inordinate self-esteem is called "pride".[24] Classical Christian theology views pride as being the result of high self-esteem, and thus[non sequitur] high self-esteem was viewed as the primary human problem, but beginning in the 20th century, "humanistic psychology" diagnosed the primary human problem as low self-esteem stemming from a lack of belief in one's "true worth."Carl Rogers observed that most people "regard themselves as worthless and unlovable." Thus, they lack self-esteem.[25]: 40, 87, 95
In theKing James Bible, people exhibiting excess pride are labeled with the term,"Haughty".
Pride goeth before destruction, and an haughty spirit before a fall.
Terry Cooper describes excessive pride (along with low self-esteem) as an important framework in which to describe the human condition. He examines and compares theAugustinian-Niebuhrian conviction that pride is primary, the feminist concept of pride as being absent in the experience of women, thehumanistic psychology position that pride does not adequately account for anyone's experience, and the humanistic psychology idea that if pride emerges, it is always a false front designed to protect an undervalued self.[25]
He considers that the work of certainNeo-Freudian psychoanalysts, namelyKaren Horney, and offers promise in addressing what he describes as a "deadlock between the overvalued and undervalued self."[25]: 112–13
Cooper refers to their work in describing the connection between religious and psychological pride as well as sin to describe how a neurotic pride system underlies an appearance of self-contempt and low self-esteem:
The "idealized self," the "tyranny of the should," the "pride system," and the nature of self-hate all point toward the intertwined relationship between neurotic pride and self-contempt. Understanding how a neurotic pride system underlies an appearance of self-contempt and low self-esteem.[sentence fragment][25]: 112–13
Thus,hubris, which is an exaggerated form of self-esteem, is sometimes actually a lie used to cover the lack of self-esteem the hubristic person feels deep down.
Hubris is associated with more intra-individual negative outcomes andis commonly related to[clarification needed] expressions of aggression and hostility.[26][full citation needed] Hubris is not necessarily associated with highself-esteem but with highly fluctuating or variable self-esteem. Excessive feelings of hubris tend to create conflict and sometimes to terminate close relationships, which has led it to be understood as one of the few emotions with no clear positive or adaptive functions.[27][full citation needed]
A group that boasts, gloats, or denigrates others tends to become a group with low social status or to be vulnerable to threats from other groups.[28][better source needed] "[H]ubristic, pompous displays of group pride might be a sign of group insecurity rather than a sign of strength,"[This quote needs a citation] while those who express pride by being filled withhumility whilst focusing on members' efforts and hard work tend to achieve high social standing in both the adult public and personal eyes.
Research from theUniversity of Sydney found that hubristic pride correlates with arrogance and self-aggrandizement, and promotesprejudice and discrimination. But authentic pride is associated with self-confidence and accomplishment and promotes more positive attitudes toward outgroups and stigmatized individuals.[29]
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Pride in one's own ethnicity or ones own culture seems to universally have positive connotations,[dubious –discuss][30] though like earlier discussions on pride, when pride tips into hubris, people have been known to commit atrocities.[31]
Types of pride across the world seem to have a broad variety. The difference of type may have no greater contrast than that between the U.S. and China.[ambiguous][32] In the U.S., individual pride tends to be more important than national / ethnic pride, and seems to be held more often in thought. The people in China seem to hold greater importance for the nation as a whole.[33]
The value of pride in the individual or the society as a whole seems to be a running theme and debate among cultures.[34] This debate shadows the discussion on pride so much so that perhaps the discussion on pride should not be about whether pride is necessarily good or bad, but about which form of it is the most useful.[34]
Pride has gained a lot of negative recognition in the western cultures, largely due to its status as one of the Seven Deadly Sins. It was popularized by the Pope Gregory I of the Catholic Church in the late sixth century, but before that it was recognized by a Christian Monk namedEvagrius Ponticus in the fourth century as one of the evils human beings should resist.[35]
InGermany, "national pride" ("Nationalstolz") is often associated withNazism. Strong displays of national pride are therefore considered to be in poor taste by many Germans. There is an ongoing public debate about the issue of Germanpatriotism. TheWorld Cup in 2006, held in Germany, saw a wave of patriotism sweep the country in a manner not seen for many years. Although many were hesitant to show such blatant support as the hanging of the national flag from windows, as theteam progressed through the tournament, so too did the level of support across the nation.[36]
The term "Asian pride" in modern usage refers mostly to those ofEast Asian descent, though it can include anyone ofAsian descent. Asian pride was originally fragmented, as Asian nations have long had conflicts with each other; examples are the old Japanese and Chinese religious beliefs about their superiority. Asian pride emerged prominently during Europeancolonialism.[37] At one time, Europeans controlled 85% of the world's land through colonialism, resulting inanti-Western feelings among Asian nations.[37] Today, some Asians still look upon European involvement in their affairs with suspicion.[37] In contrast, Asianempires are proudly remembered by adherents of Asian Pride.
"Black pride" is a slogan used primarily in the United States to raise awareness for a black racial identity. The slogan has been used byAfrican Americans of sub-Saharan African origin or ancestry to denote a feeling of self-confidence, self-respect, celebrating one's heritage, and being proud of one's worth.
White pride is a slogan mainly (but not exclusively) used bywhite separatist,white nationalist,neo-Nazi, andwhite supremacist organizations in theUnited States for awhiterace identity.[38][full citation needed] White pride also consists of white ethnic/cultural pride.
Mad pride is a worldwide movement and philosophy that individuals withmental illnesses, disorders or difficulties should be proud of their 'madness'. The movement advocates for mutual support and rallies for the rights of individuals who define themselves as 'mad',[39] and aims to popularize and destigmatize the word "mad" as a self-descriptor.[40]
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LGBT pride is a worldwide movement which recognizes thatlesbian,gay,bisexual,transgender, andqueer (LGBTQ+) individuals should be proud of theirsexual orientation andgender identity. LGBT pride includes advocacy for equalrights andbenefits for LGBT people.[41] The movement has three main premises: that people should be proud of theirsexual orientation andgender identity; thatsexual diversity is a gift; and that sexual orientation and gender identity are inherent and cannot be intentionally altered.[42][better source needed]
The word "pride" is used in this case as an antonym for "shame." It is an affirmation of self and community. The modern gay pride movement began after theStonewall riots—the nearly week-long uprising between New York City youth and police officers following a raid ofStonewall Inn—of the late 1960s. In June 1970, the firstpride parade in the United States commemorated the one-year anniversary of the Stonewall riots.[43] Today, there are pride parades and celebrations in many cities and towns throughout the world, and numerous countries recognize an annual Pride Month, most commonly in June.
In conventional parlance, vanity is sometimes used in a positive sense to refer to a rational concern for one's appearance, attractiveness, and dress, and is thus not the same as pride. It can also refer to an excessive or irrational belief in or concern with one's abilities or attractiveness in the eyes of others and may, in that sense, be compared to pride. The termvanity originates from the Latin wordvanitas meaningemptiness,untruthfulness,futility,foolishness, andempty pride.[44] Here,empty pride means a fake pride, in the sense of vainglory, unjustified by one's own achievements and actions, but sought by pretense and appeals to superficial characteristics.
In many religions, vanity is considered a form of self-idolatry, in which one rejects God for the sake of one's ownimage, and thereby becomes divorced from thegraces ofGod. The stories ofLucifer andNarcissus (who gave us the termnarcissism), and others, attend to a pernicious aspect of vanity.
In Western art, vanity was often symbolized by apeacock,Biblical terms, and by theWhore of Babylon. During theRenaissance, it was invariably represented as a nakedwoman, sometimes seated or reclining on a couch. She attends to her hair with a comb and mirror. The mirror is sometimes held by ademon or aputto. Other symbols include jewels, gold coins, a purse, andDeath himself.
Often depicted is an inscription on a scroll that readsOmnia Vanitas ("All is Vanity"), a quote from the Latin translation of the Book ofEcclesiastes.[45] Although that phrase—itself depicted in a type of still life calledvanitas—originally referred not to an obsession with one's appearance, but to the ultimate fruitlessness of man's efforts in this world, the phrase summarizes the complete preoccupation of the subject of the picture. "The artist invites us to paylip-service to condemning her", writesEdwin Mullins, "while offering us full permission to drool over her. She admires herself in the glass, while we treat the picture that purports to incriminate her as another kind of glass—a window—through which we peer and secretly desire her."[46] The theme of the recumbent woman often merged artistically with the non-allegorical one of a recliningVenus.
In his table of theseven deadly sins,Hieronymus Bosch depicts abourgeois woman admiring herself in a mirror held up by a devil. Behind her is an open jewelry box. A painting attributed toNicolas Tournier, which hangs in theAshmolean Museum, isAn Allegory of Justice and Vanity. A young woman holds abalance, symbolizingjustice; she does not look at the mirror or theskull on the table before her.Vermeer's famous paintingGirl with a Pearl Earring is sometimes believed to depict the sin of vanity, as the young girl has adorned herself before a glass without further positive allegorical attributes.[47]All is Vanity, byCharles Allan Gilbert (1873–1929), carries on this theme. Anoptical illusion, the painting depicts what appears to be a large grinning skull. Upon closer examination, it reveals itself to be a young woman gazing at her reflection in the mirror of hervanity table. Such artistic works served to warn viewers of the ephemeral nature of youthful beauty, as well as the brevity of human life and the inevitability ofdeath.
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A high, esp. an excessively high, opinion of one's own worth or importance which gives rise to a feeling or attitude of superiority over others; inordinate self-esteem.
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