.jpg) Official portrait, 2010 | |
| Premiership of David Cameron 11 May 2010 – 13 July 2016 | |
| Monarch | Elizabeth II |
|---|---|
| Cabinet | |
| Party | Conservative |
| Election | |
| Seat | 10 Downing Street |
_(St_Edwards_Crown).svg) Coat of Arms of HM Government | |
David Cameron's tenure asPrime Minister of the United Kingdom began on 11 May 2010 when he accepted an invitation of QueenElizabeth II to form a government, succeedingGordon Brown of theLabour Party, and ended on 13 July 2016 upon his resignation following the2016 referendum that favouredBrexit, which he had opposed. As prime minister, Cameron also served simultaneously asFirst Lord of the Treasury,Minister for the Civil Service, andLeader of the Conservative Party.
Following the2010 general election, Cameron became prime minister at the head of acoalition government between the Conservatives andLiberal Democrats, as no party had gained an overall majority in theHouse of Commons for the first time since theFebruary 1974 general election. He appointedNick Clegg, Leader of the Liberal Democrats,Deputy Prime Minister. Between them, the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats controlled 363 seats in the House of Commons, with a majority of 76 seats.[1]
Cameron's premiership was marked by the effects of the2008 financial crisis and theGreat Recession; these involved a large deficit in government finances that his government sought to reduce throughausterity measures. His administration passed theHealth and Social Care Act andWelfare Reform Act, which introduced large-scale changes tohealthcare andwelfare. It also enforcedstricter immigration policies,[2] introducedreforms to education and oversaw the2012 London Olympics. It privatised theRoyal Mail and legalisedsame-sex marriage in Great Britain. After the2015 general election, he remained as prime minister, this time leadinga Conservative-only government with a parliamentary majority of 12. To fulfil a manifesto pledge, Cameron introduceda referendum on theUK's continuing membership of the European Union in 2016. He supported theBritain Stronger in Europe campaign. Following the success ofthe Leave vote, Cameron resigned as prime minister and was succeeded byTheresa May, his Home Secretary.
As prime minister, Cameron was credited for helping to modernise the Conservative Party and reducing the deficit. However, he was subject to a level of criticism for the 2015 manifesto commitment to implement the referendum on the UK's continued membership of the EU and his vocal support for remain, which ultimately led to his resignation as prime minister. This led toa sustained period of political instability. The austerity measures introduced by Cameron's ChancellorGeorge Osborne failed to reduce unemployment, lower interest rates and stimulate growth, and were linked to worsenedinequality and poverty and a rise in political instability. Inhistorical rankings of prime ministers, academics and journalists have ranked him in the third and fourth quintiles.
The morning after the2010 general election presented the country with no single political party able to form a government that would command a majority in theHouse of Commons for the first time since theFebruary 1974 general election with theLabour Party led byHarold Wilson falling short of a majority. In light of this reality the Conservative leader,David Cameron, went public and gave a "big, open and comprehensive offer" to the Liberal Democrats' leaderNick Clegg and said that he wanted to open up negotiations with them to form Britain's firstcoalition government sinceWinston Churchill'swar ministry during the Second World War. In reply, Clegg said that he had always maintained that the party with the most seats and the most votes should have the right to seek to govern. Speaking to the press he said: "It seems this morning that it is the Conservative Party which has more votes and more seats – although not an absolute majority – which is why I now think that it is the Conservative Party which should seek to govern in the national interest."[3]
Following the announcement, teams of negotiators from both parties formulated what would become theCoalition Agreement which would form the basis of their partnership together.[4]Gordon Brown's resignation on 11 May 2010 meant that Cameron was invited by the Queen to form a government[5] and a coalition with the Liberal Democrats was agreed, with Clegg as theDeputy PM andLord President of the Council.[6] The initial agreement was published on 12 May 2010. It consisted of a seven-page document, in 11 sections. In the foreword, it stated "These are the issues that needed to be resolved between us in order for us to work together as a strong and stable government". Of the 57 Liberal Democrat MPs, only two (Charles Kennedy andJohn Leech) refused to support the Conservative Coalition agreement.[7]
On 11 May 2010, following the resignation ofGordon Brown as prime minister and on his recommendation, QueenElizabeth II invited Cameron to form a new government. At age 43, Cameron became the youngest prime minister sinceLord Liverpool in 1812, beating the record previously set byTony Blair in May 1997.
In his first address outside10 Downing Street, he announced his intention to form acoalition government, the first since theSecond World War, with the Liberal Democrats.
Cameron outlined how he intended to "put aside party differences and work hard for the common good and for the national interest." As one of his first moves Cameron appointed Nick Clegg, the leader of the Liberal Democrats, as deputy prime minister on 11 May 2010. Between them, the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats controlled 363 seats in the House of Commons, with a majority of 76 seats.
Cameron made his first official visits as prime minister in May. He first visited Scotland and met with the First MinisterAlex Salmond,[8] followed by Wales to meet with the First MinisterCarwyn Jones, and Northern Ireland to meet with the First MinisterPeter Robinson. His first trip to a foreign country was on 20 May to France where he met with the French PresidentNicolas Sarkozy.[9] He visited Germany on 21 May where he held talks with ChancellorAngela Merkel.[10]
A press conference on the newcabinet took place on 12 May 2010. Soon after Cameron took office, it was confirmed that Clegg would be appointed to the semi-official role ofdeputy prime minister,[11] whileGeorge Osborne would become theChancellor of the Exchequer.[12] Later it was confirmed thatWilliam Hague had assumed the post ofForeign Secretary[13] and the newHome Secretary would beTheresa May. Cameron's cabinet included Clegg and four other Liberal Democrats:Danny Alexander,Vince Cable,Chris Huhne, andDavid Laws.
The economy was a priority during theGreat Recession and the consequent increasinggovernment debt when Cameron came into office, with the topic being of much concern in British public opinion. The government announced a policy, later called 'Plan A', of eliminating thestructural deficit and ensuring that thedebt-to-GDP ratio started falling by the end of the parliament in 2015.[14][15] To facilitate this goal, theOffice for Budget Responsibility and agovernment-wide spending review were created.[16] While several government agencies enacted spending decreases, funding policies for theNational Health Service and foroverseas development were exempt.[17]
In 2010, theBehavioural Insights Team was set up to applynudge theory (behavioural economics andpsychology) to try to improve government policy and services as well as to save theUK government money.[18][19][20]
In February 2013, the UK lost itsAAA credit rating, the retention of which the government had indicated to be a priority when coming to power, for the first time since 1978.[21] By 2015 the annual deficit had been cut by about half, (the initial target was to get it to zero), so thedebt-to-GDP ratio was still rising.[22]
Specifically, Cameron's first term in office, enacting changes from 2010 to 2014, involved about £100 billion of cuts in government expenditures. In terms of economic growth, the figures that came in were generally below expectations at first, but nationwide growth picked up to an annual rate of 3% by the end of 2014, indicating a mixed picture as many of the new job positions being created have featured relatively low wages. Cameron's administration has also pursued a policy of tax increases; however, the bulk of the deficit reduction that occurred, more than 80% of the total, was related to spending cuts.[17]
In 2014, Cameron stated that theausterity programme would continue into the next parliament with further cuts to be decided after the election.[17]
Cameron's government introduced a law to prevent raisingIncome Tax,National Insurance andVAT rates. Ameet Gill, aide to Cameron at the time claims this was "poorly thought out", done "on the hoof" and "probably the dumbest economic policy".Labour considered the policy unwise and claimed it would make ending the spending deficit harder. Conservatives claimed they were leaving people with more of their own money to spend.[23][24]
In 2010 a white paper was introduced byIain Duncan Smith to reform the benefits system, merging six benefits into theUniversal Credit. The objectives of the policy included creating a more responsive system that would simplify and incentive return to work, pay benefits in a monthly cycle more akin to salaries, reduce the highmarginal deduction rate that accumulates from the withdrawal of more than one means-tested benefit simultaneously improving incentives, ensure that taking on even a small or varying amount of work would be financially rewarding, and reduce the proportion of children growing up in homes where no one worked. Universal Credit would merge out-of-work benefits and in-work support to improve return to work incentives. Implementation proved to be difficult and was much delayed, with the first roll out of the full system in December 2018, with full implementation targeted for 2024.[25][26]
In 2015 the Chancellor,George Osborne, announced a future £3.2 billion a year cut to the Universal Credit budget, to significant criticism about risks the system would fail to achieve its purpose of incentivising work in low-income households.[27][28]
The Health and Social Care Bill was the most deep-rooted and extensive reworking of the structure of theNational Health Service ever undertaken.[29] The bill had implications for all health organisations in the NHS, not least forprimary care trusts (PCTs) andstrategic health authorities (SHAs), which were replaced byclinical commissioning groups principally run by localGPs.
The bill was one of the government's most controversial proposals, and in April 2011 the government announced a "listening exercise" postponing further action on the bill. The controversy arose in part because the proposals were not discussed during the2010 general election campaign and were not contained in the May 2010 Conservative–Liberal Democrat coalition agreement.[29] Two months after the election, a white paper outlined whatThe Daily Telegraph called the "biggest revolution in the NHS since its foundation".[30]
During the throes of the Arab Spring, for which he had voiced support, Cameron spent three days touring undemocratic Gulf states with eight of Britain's leading defence manufacturers.[31] In response to the ensuing criticism, Cameron issued a three-point defence.[32] Early in 2012, Cameron again visited the Middle East to "broaden and deepen" business ties with Saudi Arabia[33] – Britain's leading arms export market – even after Amnesty International had several weeks earlier accused the Saudi government of unleashing a wave of repression against the repressed minority-Shia population in the east of the country, and even as Saudi troops added to the list of Shia protesters they had shot dead.[34][35][36] The week before his Saudi visit, theCommittees on Arms Export Controls published questions it had asked the Coalition regarding arms sales to Saudi Arabia, in particular querying why, when there was unrest in the country in 2011, licences for a range of equipment had not been revoked.[33]
In 2014, after Israel'sOperation Protective Edge, Cameron's government came under pressure to place an arms embargo on Israel.[37]Vince Cable, whose department was ultimately responsible for such matters, issued a threat to suspend 12 export licences if violence escalated again.[38] The threat was dismissed in Israel, and was described by one leading Israeli journalist as simply "an attempt at gesture politics to local voters".[39]
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Libya–United Kingdom relations soured in 2011 with the outbreak of theLibyan Civil War. Cameron condemned the "appalling and unacceptable" violence used against anti-Gaddafi protesters.[40] After weeks of lobbying by the UK and its allies, on 17 March 2011 theUnited Nations Security Council approved ano-fly zone to prevent government forces loyal toMuammar Gaddafi from carrying out air attacks onanti-Gaddafi rebels.[41] Two days later the UK and the United States fired more than 110Tomahawk missiles at targets in Libya.[42]
Cameron has said he is "proud" of the role United Kingdom played in the overthrow of Gaddafi's government.[43] Cameron also stated that UK had played a "very important role",[44] adding that "a lot of people said that Tripoli was completely different to Benghazi and that the two don't get on—they were wrong. ... People who said 'this is all going to be an enormous swamp of Islamists and extremists'—they were wrong."[45]
In March 2016, with two main rival factions based in Tripoli and Benghazi continuing to fight, anIndependent editorial noted that "there can be no question that Libya is broken. There are three nominal governments, none of which holds much authority. The economy is flatlining. Refugees flood to the Mediterranean. And Isis has put down roots in Sirte and, increasingly, Tripoli."[46][47] It was at this time that US PresidentBarack Obama accused Cameron of allowing Libya to sink into a "mess", though in private the American leader bluntly describes post-intervention Libya as a "shit show".[48]
In 2015 through 2016, theForeign Affairs Select Committee conducted an extensive and highly critical inquiry into the British involvement in the civil war. It concluded that the early threat to civilians had been overstated and that the significant Islamist element in the rebel forces had not been recognised, due to an intelligence failure. By summer 2011 the initial limited intervention to protect Libyan civilians had become a policy ofregime change. However that new policy did not include proper support and for a new government, leading to a political and economic collapse in Libya and the growth ofISIL in North Africa. It concluded that Cameron was ultimately responsible for this British policy failure.[49][50][51]
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The government was critical ofBashar al-Assad's government in the 2011 Syrian uprisings stating it had "forfeited the right to lead" by "miring itself in the blood of innocent people", and backed the rebels. On 24 February 2012, the government recognised theSyrian National Council as a "legitimate representative" of the country.[52] On 20 November 2012, theNational Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces was recognised as the "sole legitimate representative" of the Syrian people, and a credible alternative to the Syrian government.[53]
On 21 August 2013, immediately following achemical-weapons attack at Ghouta, Cameron urged U.S. PresidentBarack Obama to respond with a military intervention.[54] However a motion to participate in military strikes against the Syrian government wasdefeated in parliament on 29 August 2013. This was the first time that a British government was blocked from taking a military action by parliament.[55] After the vote Cameron said that he "strongly [believed] in the need for a tough response to the use of chemical weapons but I also believe in respecting the will of this House of Commons ... It is clear to me that the British Parliament, reflecting the views of the British people, does not want to see British military action. I get that and the Government will act accordingly."[56]
Ultimately a negotiated agreement was reached toeliminate Syria's chemical weapons.
 | This article needs to beupdated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.(June 2015) |
A victory by theScottish National Party in the2011 Scottish general election raised the prospect of theScottish Government holding an independence referendum within the following five years. Though the constitution isreserved to Westminster, the SNP planned to get round that by holding a referendum to seek a mandate to negotiate for independence. The UK governmentagreed to this plan.[57] In October 2012 Cameron said that thecampaign to keep Scotland within the United Kingdom was a priority for the government.[58]
In November 2014, Cameron stated that the UK would not pay its EU dues.[59] George Osborne later claimed victory on the dispute, noting that the UK wouldn't have to pay additional interest on the payments, which would be delayed until after Britain's 7 May 2015 general election.[60]
Following the2010 general election, the newConservative-ledCoalition continued Labour's policies onrail transport largely unaltered after a pause to review the finances, keeping theprivatised system in place. There was continuing support for theHigh Speed 2 scheme and further developing plans for the route. Whilst initially showing scepticism towards theelectrification of the Great Western route, they later gave the project its backing and work began formally in 2012, with the electrification being completed in 2020.[61] Other projects includeCrossrail and theupgrade to Thameslink were completed in 2022 and 2020 respectively.
The Government has moved towards allowing more competition on the intercity network throughopen access operators. In 2015 it approved a service run by Alliance Rail to operate between London and Blackpool, and both Alliance and FirstGroup have applied to run open access services on theEast Coast Main Line.[62][63]
In January 2015, Cameron said "We've made sure that rail fares cannot go up by more than inflation. So the rail fare increase this year, as last year, is linked to inflation, and I think that's right. In previous years it's gone up by more than inflation. But, of course, what you're seeing on our railways is a £38bn investment project. And that money is coming, of course, from taxpayers, from the government, and from farepayers as well." He said Britain was seeing "the biggest investment in our roads since the 1970s, but in our railways since Victorian times".[64]
The rapid growth in the use of food banks underDavid Cameron became one of the major criticisms of his administration, and a recurring theme at Prime Minister's Questions.[65][66] Cameron praised volunteers providing donated food as "part of what I call theBig Society", to which Labour leaderEd Miliband responded that he "never thought the Big Society was about feeding hungry children in Britain".[67]
In February 2014, 27Anglican bishops together with leadingMethodists andQuakers wrote anopen letter to Cameron blaming government policy for a rise in the use offood banks. The letter asserted that "over half of people using food banks have been put in that situation by cutbacks to and failures in the benefit system, whether it be payment delays or punitive sanctions".[68] The government responded that delays in benefit processing had been reduced, with the proportion of benefits paid on time rising from 88 to 89% under Labour, to 96–97% in 2014.[69] Cameron said that the rise in food bank usage was due to the government encouraging Jobcentres and local authorities to promote them, and noted an OECD report which showed a fall in the proportion of people in Britain struggling to buy food.[70]
In November 2011, Home SecretaryTheresa May came under heavy criticism for presiding over a scheme weakening UK border controls, and allowing potential terrorists into the country unchecked.[71] Some of the blame also fell on (now former) Head of the UK border forceBrodie Clark, whom May claimed went beyond his remit.[71]
Lib Dem Business SecretaryVince Cable was removed from a quasi-judicial role in deciding whether BSkyB should be allowed to takeover control of Sky, after being accused of bias againstNews Corporation, the company which ownsBSkyB.[72]
Allegations ofIslamophobia were made against the Conservative Party during Cameron's premiership. One of the first major Conservative Party policies considered to be Islamophobic since they came to power in 2010 were the"Go Home" vans, an initiative ofthen-Home Secretary Theresa May. They were part of a controversial 2013advertising campaign by the BritishHome Office, in which advertising vans with slogans recommending that illegal immigrants should "go home or face arrest" were sent to tour areas with high immigrant populations, particularly ofBritish Muslims. The "Go Home" vans were a part of May's largerHome Office hostile environment policy, a controversial program designed to make staying in theUnited Kingdom as difficult as possible for people withoutleave to remain. TheUnited Nations Human Rights Council has stated that the policy has fosteredxenophobia within the UK, while theEquality and Human Rights Commission has found that the policy broke equalities law.[73][74]
In 2016, the Conservative Party faced criticism for running a supposedly Islamophobic campaign promotingZac Goldsmith for London mayor by smearing Labour's mayoral candidate,Sadiq Khan.[75] Concerns were first raised that Goldsmith's campaign was attempting to divide communities after flyers targeting Hindu voters suggested Khan would implement a tax on jewellery. Another controversy arose when Goldsmith questioned Khan's associations with alleged extremists before he became an MP.
Cameron's close relationship with senior figures ofNews International came under increasing scrutiny as the controversy of the News of the World phone hacking scandal grew.[76] A close friend ofRebekah Brooks, Cameron had also hiredAndy Coulson as his communications director before Coulson was implicated in, and later arrested for his role in, the phone hacking. Cameron, who had spent his Christmas with Brooks,[77] was accused byEd Miliband of being "out of step with public opinion" and lacking leadership on the matter due to his "close relationships" with News International.[78] The scandal was further aggravated by the announcement he had riddenRebekah Brooks horse on loan from theMetropolitan Police, and the implicit involvement of Culture SecretaryJeremy Hunt, whom had been handed jurisdiction overRupert Murdoch'sBSkyB bid followingVince Cable's supposed expression of bias, in passing confidential information to the Murdoch empire regarding the bid's progress[79]Right-leaning political commentatorPeter Oborne argued that it was no longer possible to assert that Cameron was "grounded with a decent set of values" after a "succession of chronic personal misjudgements", equating the scandal withTony Blair's decision to go to war in Iraq as a turning point in his premiership, and calling for him to distance himself from Brooks.[80]
The Prime Ministerial Thesis of Government suggests that there is too much power given to the prime minister.[81] Due to the unwritten constitution of the UK, there is little constraint on thepower of the prime minister. However, during the 2010-2015 coalition, this theory was tested as it showed that there are limits to the power of the Prime Minister.[82] As a result of the coalition, Cameron used half of his cabinet slots to make room for Clegg as his deputy prime minister, and other Liberal Democrats as ministers.[83] In which they suggest that Cameron's power as prime minister was severely limited during the coalition:
"hamstrung by a coalition partner which has more veto power than a party of its size and standing really should have, sometimes beset by Tory critics, Cameron has not proved to be the dominant prime minister he may have appeared earlier in his premiership."[84]
Bennister and Heffernan argue that Cameron's leadership style differs to that of Thatcher and Blair, as a result of the coalition. Thatcher and Blair both presented a presidential style of leadership during their premierships (presidentialism.) Cameron was not able to demonstrate this type of power, as he often 'accepted the veto' that was presented to him by the Liberal Democrats.[84] He was often restrained by the fact he continually had to compromise with a party that was ideologically set to the left of his own. Anthony Seldon and Mike Finn support the argument that the coalition severely effect Cameron's power as prime minister as they suggest that "The lack of an overall Conservative majority in Parliament and the requirement to work with the Liberal Democrats were constraints that no post-war Prime Minister of any party has had to face for any extended duration."[85] Seldon and Finn reflect on what Cameron could have achieved had he not been in a coalition; "He would have had more freedom of manoeuvre on Europe. He would have gone further on welfare reform and on spending cuts. He would have insisted on more value for money from the green agenda, and pushed the 'Big Society' agenda harder. He would have focused less on civil liberties and more on the need for tough national security. Above all, the boundary changes would almost certainly have been implemented."[85]
On 7 May 2015, Cameron was re-elected UK prime minister with a majority in the Commons.[86] The Conservative Party's decisive victory in the general election was a surprise, as most polls and commentators had suggested the outcome was too close to call and that the result would be a second hung parliament.[87] Cameron said of his first term when returned as prime minister for a second term that he was "proud to lead the first coalition government in 70 years" and offered particular thanks to Clegg for his role in it.[88] Forming the firstConservative majority government since 1992, David Cameron became the first prime minister to be re-elected immediately after a full term with a larger popular vote share sinceLord Salisbury at the1900 general election.
In response to the November 2015 Paris attacks, Cameron secured the support of the House of Commons to extend air strikes againstISIS into Syria.[89] Earlier that year, Cameron had outlined a five-year strategy to counter Islamist extremism and subversive teachings.[90]
Following the 2015 general election, Cameron remained prime minister, this time at the head of a Conservative-only government with a majority of 12 seats.[91] Having gained seats from Labour and the Liberal Democrats, Cameron was able to form a government without a coalition partner, resulting in the first Conservative-only cabinet since 1997.[92][93]
Following the election victory ChancellorGeorge Osborne announced that there would be asecond 2015 budget on 8 July. The main announcements[94] included:
In response to theNovember 2015 Paris attacks, Cameron secured the support of the House of Commons to extend air strikes againstISIS into Syria.[95] Earlier that year, Cameron had outlined a five-year strategy to counter Islamist extremism and subversive teachings.[96]
In January 2016,The Independent reported that there had been an increase of over 50% in the use ofstatutory instruments, used to pass legislation without Parliamentary scrutiny since 2010.Lord Jopling deplored the behaviour which he called an abuse whilstThe Baroness Smith of Basildon asked whether it was the start of "constitutionalgerrymandering".[97]
As promised in the election manifesto, Cameron set a date for areferendum on whether the UK should remain a member of the European Union, and announced that he would be campaigning for Britain to remain within a "reformed EU".[98] The terms of the UK's membership of the EU werere-negotiated, with agreement reached in February 2016.[99] The option to leave came to be known asBrexit (aportmanteau of "British" and "exit").
The referendum was held on 23 June 2016. The result was approximately 52% in favour of leaving the European Union and 48% against, with a turnout of 72%.[100][101] On 24 June, a few hours after the results became known, Cameron announced that he would resign the office of prime minister by the start of the Conservative Party Conference in October 2016. In a speech the next day outside 10 Downing Street, he stated that, on account of his own advocacy on behalf of remaining in the EU: "I do not think it would be right for me to try to be the captain that steers our country to its next destination."[102][103][104]
There was some strong criticism made of Cameron and his government following the referendum. Matthew Norman, in an opinion piece inThe Independent, called the referendum an act of "indescribably selfish recklessness."[105] In late July, Parliament's Foreign Affairs Select Committee was told that Cameron had refused to allow the Civil Service to make plans for Brexit, a decision the committee described as "an act of gross negligence."[106] His farewell speech as he left No. 10 accompanied by his family stressed the value of selfless public service.[107]
TheConservative Party leadership election was scheduled for 9 September and the new leader was expected to be in place by the autumn conference, set to begin on 2 October.[108] On 11 July, following the withdrawal ofAndrea Leadsom from the Conservative Party leadership election and the confirmation ofTheresa May as the newleader of the Conservative Party, Cameron announced he would hold a final cabinet meeting on 12 July and then, following a final Prime Minister's Questions, submit his resignation to the Queen on the afternoon of 13 July. After his final Prime Minister's Questions, Cameron received a standing ovation from MPs; his final comment was, "I was the future once"—a reference to his 2005 quip toTony Blair, "he was the future once". Cameron then submitted his resignation to the Queen later that day.[109]
Although no longer serving as prime minister, Cameron originally stated that he would continue inside Parliament, on the Conservativebackbenches.[110] On 12 September, however, he announced that he was resigning his seat with immediate effect,[111] and was appointed to theManor of Northstead. He was succeeded as MP for Witney by fellow ConservativeRobert Courts.[112]The Washington Post described him as having "sped away without glancing back" onceTheresa May had "vaulted herself out of the hurricane-strength political wreckage of Britain's vote to leave the European Union."[113]
Cameron made 148 trips to 62 countries (in addition to visiting the Occupied Palestinian Territories) during his premiership.
The number of visits per country:
Libya's Western allies worry the OPEC country is becoming polarized between the two main factions of competing militia brigades and their political allies...
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