Prehistoric technology istechnology that predatesrecorded history. History is the study of the past using written records. Anything prior to the first written accounts of history isprehistoric, including earlier technologies. About 2.5 million years before writing was developed, technology began with the earliesthominids who usedstone tools, which they first used to hunt food, and later to cook.
There are several factors that made the evolution of prehistoric technology possible or necessary. One of the key factors isbehavioral modernity of thehighly developed brain ofHomo sapiens capable of abstractreasoning,language,introspection, andproblem-solving. The advent of agriculture resulted in lifestyle changes fromnomadic lifestyles to ones lived in homes, withdomesticated animals, and land farmed using more varied and sophisticated tools. Art, architecture, music and religion evolved over the course of the prehistoric periods.
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TheStone Age is a broad prehistoric period during which stone was widely used in the manufacture of implements with a sharp edge, a point, or a percussion surface. The period lasted roughly 2.5 million years, from the time of early hominids toHomo sapiens in the laterPleistocene era, and largely ended between 6000 and 2000 BCE with the advent of metalworking.[1]
The Stone Age lifestyle was that ofhunter-gatherers who traveled to hunt game and gather wild plants, with minimal changes in technology. As thelast glacial period of the current ice age neared its end (about 12,500 years ago),large animals like themammoth andbison antiquus became extinct and the climate changed. Humans adapted by maximizing the resources in local environments, gathering and eating a wider range of wild plants and hunting or catching smaller game.Domestication of plants and animals with early stages in theOld World (Afro-Eurasia)Mesolithic and New World (Americas)Archaic periods led to significant changes and reliance on agriculture in the Old WorldNeolithic and New WorldFormative stage. The agricultural life led to more settled existences and significant technological advancements.[2][nb 1]
AlthoughPaleolithic cultures left no written records, the shift from nomadic life to settlement and agriculture can be inferred from a range of archaeological evidence. Such evidence includes ancient tools,[3]cave paintings, and otherprehistoric art, such as theVenus of Willendorf. Human remains also provide direct evidence, both through the examination of bones, and the study ofmummies. Though concrete evidence is limited, scientists and historians have been able to form significant inferences about the lifestyle and culture of various prehistoric peoples, and the role technology played in their lives.[citation needed]
TheLower Paleolithic period was the earliest subdivision of thePaleolithic or OldStone Age. It spans the time from around2.5 million years ago when the first evidence of craft and use ofstone tools byhominids appears in the currentarchaeological record, until around 300,000 years ago, spanning theOldowan ("mode 1") andAcheulean ("mode 2")lithic technology.[citation needed]
Early humans (hominids) usedstone tool technology, such as ahand axe that wassimilar to that used by primates, which are found to have intelligence levels of modern children aged 3 to 5 years. Intelligence and use of technology did not change much for millions of years. The first "Homo" species began withHomo habilis about2.4 to 1.5 million years ago.[4]Homo habilis ("handy man') created stone tools calledOldowan tools.[5][6][7]Homo ergaster lived in eastern and southern Africa about2.5 to 1.7 million years ago and used more diverse and sophisticatedstone tools than its predecessor,Homo habilis, including having refined the inheritedOldowan tools and developed the firstAcheuleanbifacial axes.[8]
Homo erectus ("upright man") lived about1.8 to 1.3 million years ago inWest Asia andAfrica and is thought to be the firsthominid to hunt in coordinated groups, use complex tools, and care for infirm or weaker companions.[9][10]Homo antecessor the earliest hominid in Northern Europe lived from 1.2 million to 800,000 years ago and used stone tools.[11][12]Homo heidelbergensis lived between 600,000 and 400,000 years ago and used stone tool technology similar theAcheulean tools used byHomo erectus.[13]
European and Asian sites dating back 1.5 million years ago seem to indicatecontrolled use of fire byHomo erectus. A northernIsrael site from about 690,000 to 790,000 years ago suggests that man could light fires.[14]Homo heidelbergensis may have been the first species tobury their dead about 500,000 years ago.[15]
TheMiddle Paleolithic period occurred in Europe and the Near East, during which theNeanderthals lived (c. 300,000–28,000 years ago). The earliest evidence (Mungo Man) of settlement inAustralia datesto around 40,000 years ago when modern humans likely crossed from Asia by island-hopping. TheBhimbetka rock shelters exhibit the earliest traces of human life inIndia, some of which are approximately 30,000 years old.[citation needed]
Homo neanderthalensis usedMousterianStone tools that date back to around 300,000 years ago[16] and include smaller, knife-like and scraper tools.[citation needed] Theyburied their dead in shallow graves along with stone tools and animal bones, although the reasons and significance of the burials are disputed.[17][18]
Homo sapiens, the only livingspecies in the genusHomo, originated inAfrica about 200,000 years ago. As compared to their predecessors,Homo sapiens had a more complex brain structure, which provided better coordination for manipulating objects and far greater use oftools.[19] There wasart created during this period. Intentional burial, particularly withgrave goods, may be one of the earliest detectable forms of religious practice since it may signify a "concern for the dead that transcends daily life."[20] The earliest undisputed human burial so far dates back 130,000 years. Human skeletal remains stained withred ochre were discovered in the Skhul cave atQafzeh, Israel with a variety of grave goods.[21]
During theUpper Paleolithic Revolution, advancements in human intelligence and technology changed radically with the advent ofbehavioral modernity between 60,000 and 30,000 years ago.[4]Behavioral modernity is a set of traits that distinguishHomo sapiens from extincthominid lineages.Homo sapiens reached full behavioral modernity around 50,000 years ago due to ahighly developedbrain capable of abstractreasoning,language,introspection, andproblem-solving.[19][22]
Aurignacian tools, such asstone-bladed tools, tools made ofantlers, and tools made ofbones were created during this period.[23] People began creatingclothing. What appear to be sewing needles were found around 40,000 years ago and[24] dyedflax fibers dated 36,000BP were found in a prehistoric cave in theRepublic of Georgia.[25][26] Human beings may have begun wearing clothing as far back as 190,000 years ago.[27] Poisoned weapons are a hallmark of advanced hunter-gatherer technology. Traces of toxic plant alkaloids on microlithic arrowheads inKwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, dated to 60,000 years ago.[28]
Cultural aspects emerged, such asart of the Upper Paleolithic period, which includedcave painting,sculpture such as theVenus figurines, carvings and engravings of bone and ivory. The most common subject matter was large animals that were hunted by the people of the time.TheCave of Altamira and Paleolithic Cave Art of Northern Spain andCôa Valley Paleolithic Art are examples of such artwork.Musical instruments such asflutes emerged during this period.[citation needed]
The Mesolithic period was a transitional era between the Paleolithichunter-gatherers, beginning with theHolocene warm period around 11,660BP and ending with theNeolithic introduction of farming, the date of which varied in each geographical region. Adaptation was required during this period due to climate changes that affected environment and the types of available food.[citation needed]
Small stone tools calledmicroliths, including smallbladelets andmicroburins, emerged during this period.[29] For instance,spears or arrows were found at the earliest known Mesolithic battle site atCemetery 117 in theSudan.[30]Holmegaardbows were found in thebogs of Northern Europe dating from theMesolithic period.[31] These microliths point to the use ofprojectile technology since they are widely assumed to have formed the tips and barbs of arrows.[32] This is demonstrated by mesolithic assemblages found insouthwest Germany, which revealed two types of projectiles used: arrows with transverse, trapezoidal stone tips and large barbed antler "harpoons".[33] These implements indicate the nature of human adaptation to the environment during the period, describing the Mesolithic societies as hunter-gatherers.[34]
TheNeolithic Revolution was the first agricultural revolution, representing a transition fromhunting and gathering nomadic life to anagriculture existence. It evolved independently in six separate locations worldwide circa 10,000–7,000 yearsBP (8,000–5,000BC). The earliest known evidence exists in the tropical and subtropical areas ofsouthwestern/southern Asia,northern/central Africa andCentral America.[35]
There are some key defining characteristics. Theintroduction of agriculture resulted in a shift from nomadic to more sedentary lifestyles,[36] and the use of agricultural tools such as theplough,digging stick andhoe made agricultural labor more efficient.[citation needed] Animals weredomesticated, includingdogs.[35][36] Another defining characteristic of the period was the emergence ofpottery,[36] and, in the late Neolithic period, thewheel was introduced for making pottery.[37]
Neolithic architecture included houses and villages built ofmud-brick andwattle and daub and the construction of storage facilities, tombs and monuments.[38]Coppermetalworking was employed as early as 9000 BC in the Middle East;[39] and a copper pendant found in northern Iraq dated to 8700 BC.[40] Ground and polishedstone tools continued to be created and used during the Neolithic period.[36]
Numeric record keeping evolved from a system of counting using small clay tokens that began inSumer about 8000 BC.[41]
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The Stone Age developed into theBronze Age after theNeolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution involved radical changes in agricultural technology which includeddevelopment of agriculture, animaldomestication, and the adoption of permanent settlements.[citation needed]
TheBronze Age is characterised by metalsmelting ofcopper and its alloybronze, an alloy oftin and copper, to create implements and weapons. Polished stone tools continued to be used due to their abundance compared with the less common metals (especially tin).[citation needed]
This technological trend apparently began in theFertile Crescent, and spread outward.[citation needed]
TheIron Age involved the adoption of iron or steelsmelting technology, either bycasting orforging. Iron replaced bronze,[42][43] and made it possible to produce tools which were stronger, lighter and cheaper to make than bronze equivalents.[44] The best tools and weapons were made from steel.[45]
Other societal changes often accompanied the introduction of iron, including practice changes in art, religion and agriculture. The Iron Age ends with the beginning of the historic periods, generally marked by thedevelopment of written language that enabled creation ofhistoric records.[43][45]
The timing of the adoption of iron depended upon "the availability of iron ore and the state of knowledge".[42][43] Iron was smelted in Egypt about 6000 B.C. and iron replaced bronze in the Middle East about 1500 B.C. Chinese began casting iron about 5000 B.C. and their methods for casting iron was the precursor to modern steel manufacturing methods. Most of Asia, however, did not adopt production of iron until the historic period.[42]
In Europe, iron was introduced about 1100 B.C. and had replaced bronze for creating weapons and tools by 500 B.C. They made iron through the forging smelting process and integrated casting in theMiddle Ages.[42] Largehill forts oroppida were built either as a refuge in time of war, or sometimes as permanent settlements. Agricultural practices were made more efficient with more effective and varied iron tools.[46]
Iron was extracted from metal ore starting about 2000 B.C. inAfrica.[42]
The New World periods began with the crossing of thePaleo-Indians,Athabaskan,Aleuts andEskimos along theBering Land Bridge onto the North American continent.[47]
ThePaleo-Indians were the first people who entered, and subsequently inhabited, theAmericas during the finalglacial episodes of thelate Pleistocene period. Evidence suggests big-game hunters crossed theBering Strait from Asia into North America over a land and ice bridge (Beringia), that existed between 45,000BCE – 12,000 BCE,[48] following herds of largeherbivores far intoAlaska.[49]
In their book,Method and Theory in American Archaeology, Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips defined five cultural stages for the Americas, including the three prehistoricLithic,Archaic andFormative stages. The historic stages are theClassic andPost-Classic stages.[50][51]
TheLithic period occurred from 12,000 to 6,000 years before present and included theClovis,Folsom andPlano cultures.[51] Clovis culture was considered the first culture to use projectile points to hunt on the North American continent. Since then, apre-Clovis site was found in Manis, Washington that found use of projectile points to hunt mastodons.[52]
TheArchaic period in the Americas was dated from 8,000 to 2,000 years before present.[51] People were hunters of small game, such as deer, antelope and rabbits, and gatherers of wild plants, moving seasonally to hunting and gathering sites. Late in the Archaic period, about 200-500 A.D., corn was introduced into the diet and pottery-making became an occupation for storing and curing food.[53]
TheFormative stage followed the Archaic period in the Americas and continued until there was contact by European people. Some of the cultures from that period include that of theAncient Pueblo People,Mississippian culture andOlmec cultures.[51]
Cultures of the Formative Stage are supposed to possess the technologies of pottery, weaving, and developed food production. Social organization is supposed to involve permanent towns and villages, as well as the first ceremonial centers. Ideologically, an early priestly class or theocracy is often present or in development.[54]
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