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List of conflicts in territory of the former Soviet Union

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(Redirected fromPost-Soviet conflicts)

Map of international boundaries among theEastern Bloc during theCold War (top), and after theRevolutions of 1989 and thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 (bottom)

This article provides a list of conflicts that have occurred in the territory of theformer Soviet Union. In December 1991, thedissolution of the Soviet Union resulted in the emergence of 15 independent countries:Armenia,Azerbaijan,Belarus,Estonia,Georgia,Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Latvia,Lithuania,Moldova,Russia,Tajikistan,Turkmenistan,Ukraine, andUzbekistan.

List

[edit]

Central Asia

[edit]
ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
Tajikistani Civil War5 May 199227 June 1997Began when ethnic groups from theGharm andGorno-Badakhshan regions ofTajikistan, which were underrepresented in the ruling elite, rose up against the national government ofPresidentRahmon Nabiyev, in which people from theLeninabad andKulob regions dominated. The war ended with the signing of the General Agreement on the Establishment of Peace and National Accord in Tajikistan and the Moscow Protocol.[9]20,000[10]–150,000[11] killed
Batken conflictKyrgyzstan
Russia (material support)
Uzbekistan (military support)		Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan30 July 199927 September 1999Armed clashes between militants of the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU) and the Armed Forces of Kyrgyzstan1,182 killed
Andijan massacreGovernment of Uzbekistan13 May 2005Protest and government massacre in the city of Andijan in Uzbekistan187–1,500 killed
2010 Kyrgyz RevolutionGovernment of KyrgyzstanSDPK
Respublika
A.M.S.P
Ar-Namys
Ata-Zhurt
United Kyrgyzstan		6 April 201015 April 2010Also known as the People's April Revolution, the Melon Revolution or the April Events. Began with the ousting ofKyrgyzpresidentKurmanbek Bakiyev in the capitalBishkek. The violence ultimately led to the consolidation of a new parliamentary system in Kyrgyzstan.[12]118 killed
2010 South Kyrgyzstan ethnic clashes Kyrgyz provisional government

Supported by:
Turkmenistan
Iran
KazakhstanKazakhstan[13]
China[14]
Russia[15]
TurkeyTurkey[16]
United States[17]

KyrgyzstaniKyrgyz gangs

Other pro-Bakiyev forces

UzbekistaniKyrgyz‹ThetemplateSmallsup is beingconsidered for deletion.› 1

Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan(alleged)[23]

KyrgyzstaniUzbeks

UzbekistaniUzbek civilians‹ThetemplateSmallsup is beingconsidered for deletion.› 1

 Uzbekistan[28](limited involv.)‹ThetemplateSmallsup is beingconsidered for deletion.› 2[30][31]

19 May 2010June 2010Clashes between ethnicKyrgyz andUzbeks in southernKyrgyzstan, primarily in the cities ofOsh andJalal-Abad, in the aftermath of the ouster of former PresidentKurmanbek Bakiyev on April 7.393–893 killed
Insurgency in Gorno-Badakhshan (2010–2015)TajikistanTajikistanUnited Tajik Opposition
19 September 20101 September 2015Sporadic fighting inTajikistan between rebel and government forces.191–206 killed
Zhanaozen massacreGovernment of KazakhstanOil workers16 December 201117 December 2011Labor protest and government massacre in the city of Zhanaozen in Kazakhstan14+ killed
2020 Dungan–Kazakh ethnic clashesEthnicDungansEthnicKazakhs5 February 20208 February 2020Clashes between ethnicKazakhs and ethnicDungans (a Muslim group withChinese origins) in the village ofMasanchi within theKorday District ofKazakhstan.[32]11 killed[33]
2020 Kyrgyz RevolutionKyrgyzstanGovernment of Kyrgyzstan* Protesters
2021 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashesKyrgyzstanTajikistan28 April 20211 May 2021Clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan overwater dispute.[36][37]45 killed
2022 Kazakh unrestGovernment of Kazakhstan
CSTO[n 1]		Kazakh opposition
Protesters		2 January 202211 January 2022Protests across Kazakhstan that were sparked by an abrupt increase of gas prices, but have escalated into general protests. Kazakhstan's government has requestedCSTO assistance in quelling the protests.257 killed
2022 Karakalpak protests Karakalpakstan Protesters1 July 20223 July 2022Over proposed amendments byPresidentShavkat Mirziyoyev to theConstitution of Uzbekistan which would have ended Karakalpakstan's status as an autonomous region of Uzbekistan and right to secede from Uzbekistan via referendum. A day after protests had begun in the Karakalpak capital ofNukus, President Mirziyoyev withdrew the constitutional amendments. The Karakalpak government said that protesters had attempted to storm government buildings.[38]21 killed
2022 Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan clashesKyrgyzstanTajikistan
Afghan mujahids[39][40][41] (per Kyrgyzstan)		27 January 202220 September 2022Clashes between Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan146 killed

Caucasus

[edit]

North Caucasus

[edit]
See also:Wars in the Caucasus
Map of theCaucasus, showing unrecognized breakaway states (Abkhazia andSouth Ossetia) withinGeorgia as a result of theRusso-Georgian War in 2008. These areas are regarded by the international community as beingoccupied by Russia.
ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
East Prigorodny conflictNorth Ossetia
Russian Federation		IngushetiaIngush rebels30 October 19926 November 1992Inter-ethnic conflict in the Eastern part of thePrigorodny district.600 killed[42]
First Chechen WarRussian Government
  • Loyalist opposition
Chechen Republic of Ichkeria

Foreign volunteers:

11 December 199431 August 1996Russian troops invaded afterChechnya declared independence, but withdrew in 1996 leading to ade facto Chechen independence.46,500 killed[51]
War in Dagestan (1999)RussiaIslamic Djamaat of Dagestan

ChechnyaChechnya

7 August 199914 September 1999TheIslamic International Brigade invaded the neighbouring Russian republic ofDagestan in support of the Shura of Dagestanseparatist movement.2,775 killed
Second Chechen WarRussiaChechen Republic of Ichkeria (1999–2007)

Caucasus Emirate (2007–2009)

  • North Caucasian volunteers

Mujahideen[52][53][54][55]
Grey Wolves[47][48]

7 August 199916 April 2009Russia restores federal control ofChechnya.20,500 killed[56]
Insurgency in IngushetiaRussiaRussiaChechen Republic of Ichkeria (until October 2007)

Caucasus Emirate (from October 2007)

Ingushetia Ingush opposition(2007–2008)
ad hoc revenge groups

21 July 200719 May 2015Separatist insurgency inIngushetia.871 killed
Insurgency in the North CaucasusRussiaCaucasus Emirate
(2009–17)

Islamic State

16 April 200919 December 2017Separatist insurgency inChechnya,Dagestan, and other parts of theNorth Caucasus region.3,500 killed
Low-level Islamic State insurgency in the North Caucasus

Other Islamist groups andlone wolves

20 December 2017Presentongoing terror activity of theIslamic State branch in theNorth Caucasus after theinsurgency of the Caucasus Emirate.250+ killed

South Caucasus

[edit]
ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
First Nagorno-Karabakh War
Foreign groups:
20 February 198812 May 1994The secessionist conflict leads tode facto independence ofRepublic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh Republic).28,000–38,000 killed[85]
South Ossetia war (1991–1992)Georgia (country)Georgia (1992)5 January 199124 June 1992The separatist conflict leads toSouth Ossetia's de facto independence from Georgia.1,000 killed[87]
Georgian Civil War

Supported by:
Chechen Republic of IchkeriaChechen Republic of Ichkeria

Georgia (country)Pro-Shevardnadze forces

Supported by:
Russia

22 December 199131 December 1993Acivil war leads to the overthrow of the first President of GeorgiaZviad Gamsakhurdia and his replacement with new PresidentEduard Shevardnadze.2,000 killed[90]
War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)GeorgiaAbkhaziaAbkhazia
Confederation of Mountain Peoples of the Caucasus

Supported by:
Russia[d]

14 August 199230 September 1993[91][e]Abkhaz separatism leads to the de facto independence ofAbkhazia fromGeorgia.10,000–30,000 killed[93]
Ganja Uprising

Huseynov militia
Supported by:
Russia

 Azerbaijani Government
APFP		4 June 199315 June 1993A mutiny against Azerbaijani President Abulfaz Elchibey replaces him withHeydar AliyevUnknown
1995 Azerbaijani coup attemptSpecial Purpose Police Unit
Turkish putschists
Supported by:
Nationalist Movement Party[94]		Government of Azerbaijan

Supported by:
TurkeyGovernment of Turkey
Russia

13 March 199517 March 1995A failed attempt to reinstall former president Abulfaz Elchibey31 killed
War in Abkhazia (1998)Georgian insurgentsAbkhazia18 May 199826 May 1998Ethnic Georgians in Abkhazia launched an insurgency against theAbkhazian secessionist government.100 killed[95]
1998 Georgian attempted mutinyGeorgian GovernmentMutineers from theSenaki Military Brigade
Zviadists		18 October 199819 October 1998An abortive mutiny led by pro-Gamsakhurdia officers from theSenaki Military Brigade to remove new President Eduard Shevardnadze from power.5 killed[96]
2001 Kodori crisisChechen division under Gelayev
Georgian guerrillas[97]		Abkhazia4 October 200118 October 2001Georgian guerrillas unsuccessfully try to regain control over Abkhazia with the help of Chechen fighters.At least 40 killed[98]
Pankisi Gorge crisisGeorgia (country)Georgia
Supported by:
United States
Russia		Chechen Republic of IchkeriaChechen militants
Mujahideen in Chechnya
Other jihadists		November 2000October 2002[f]An incursion byAl-Qaeda forces into Georgia on behalf of Chechen rebels fighting in the North Caucasus. They were forced out in 2004 byGeorgian forces with American and Russian backing.Unknown
2004 South Ossetian clashesGeorgia (country)GeorgiaSouth OssetiaSouth Ossetia
RussiaRussia		7 July 20045 November 2004Clashes between Georgian and South Ossetian troops result in several deaths.22 killed
2006 Kodori crisisGeorgia (country)GeorgiaGeorgia (country)Monadire22 July 200628 July 2006Georgian police and special forces drive a local rebellious militia out of the Georgian-controlledKodori Valley in Abkhazia.1 killed
Russo-Georgian WarGeorgia1 August 200816 August 2008A war between Georgia on one side andRussia,South Ossetia andAbkhazia on the other side confirms the de facto independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and leads to their recognition byRussia andNicaragua.[100]500 killed[101]
2009 Georgian mutinyGeorgian Army
Georgian Police		Mutineers from theMukhrovani Separate Tank Battalion5 May 20095 May 2009An alleged abortive mutiny by a Georgian Army tank battalion based in Mukhrovani village with a goal of removing President Saakashvili from power.None killed
2010 Mardakert clashesAzerbaijanNagorno-Karabakh
Armenia		18 June 20101 September 2010Sporadic border war on the Armenian–Azerbaijan border and at the line of contact between the Nagorno-Karabakh and Azerbaijan.7–8 killed
2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflictAzerbaijanArtsakh
Armenia		1 April 20165 April 2016Armenian and Azerbaijani forces fight a four-day long conflict along the border of the unrecognizedRepublic of Artsakh. Azerbaijani forces make minor territorial gains, some of which are retaken by Armenian forces before the end of the conflict.400–1,600 killed
July 2020 Armenian–Azerbaijani clashesAzerbaijanArmenia12 July 202016 July 2020Armenian and Azerbaijani forces engage in border clashes along theTavush Province of Armenia andTovuz District of Azerbaijan. The death of Azerbaijani major generalPolad Hashimov sparks theJuly 2020 Azerbaijani protests. Turkey and Azerbaijan organize large-scale military exercises following the clashes, and tensions persist until the beginning of theSecond Nagorno-Karabakh War 2 months later.29–133 killed
Second Nagorno-Karabakh WarAzerbaijan
Turkey (alleged by Armenia)[102][103][104]
Syrian oppositionSyrian mercenaries[g][108][109]		Artsakh
Armenia		27 September 202010 November 2020Azerbaijan retakes most of the territories previously controlled by theRepublic of Artsakh. Russian peacekeepers introduced into the remaining disputed area.7,000 killed[110]
Armenia–Azerbaijan border crisisAzerbaijanArmenia12 May 2021presentBorder clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia.353 killed
Blockade of Nagorno-KarabakhAzerbaijanRussiaRussian peacekeepers

Artsakh

12 December 202230 September 2023Azerbaijan blockades the Republic of Artsakh.Unknown
2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-KarabakhAzerbaijan[h]Artsakh[i]19 September 202320 September 2023Azerbaijan launches an attack on the Republic of Artsakh after nine months of blockade. TheArtsakh Defence Army disbands, the government of the Republic of Artsakh agrees to dissolve itself entirely by January 1, 2024, and almost the entire population of Artsakhflees to Armenia.200 killed[111]

Eastern Europe

[edit]
ConflictBelligerentsStartEndDetailFatalities
Gagauzia conflictGagauz RepublicMoldavian Soviet Socialist Republic/Moldavian SSR (until 1991)
Moldova (from 1991)		12 November 198914 January 1995Ended in the reintegration of Gagauzia into Moldova as an autonomous region.Unknown
Transnistria War/Moldova[j]
Supported by:
 Romania		2 November 199021 July 1992Separatism in Transnistria leads to its de-facto secession from Moldova with Russian backing.1,000 killed
1993 Russian constitutional crisisRussiaPresidential forces:
  • Pro-Yeltsin demonstrators and organizations
  • Russia Federalists and anti-communists
RussiaParliamentary forces:

Anti-Yeltsin opposition:

21 September 19934 October 1993Political stand-off between the Russian president and the Russian parliament that was resolved by using military force.147 killed
Euromaidan and theRevolution of DignityGovernment of Ukraine

Pro-government groups

Parties

Supported by:
Russia

Anti-government protesters
21 November 201322 February 2014Euromaidan is the name given to civil unrest that started when the Ukrainian government cancelled an association agreement with the EU in favour of closer ties with Russia. The protests escalated and led to theRevolution of Dignity, which toppled the Ukrainian government.121 killed
Russian invasion of Crimea27 February 2014[note 4] 26 March 2014In February 2014,Russia invadedCrimea. In March, following the takeover of Crimea by pro-Russian separatists andRussian Armed Forces,[157] areferendum (not recognised by the new Ukrainian authorities)[158] was held on the issue of reunification with Russia.[159] This took place in the aftermath of theRevolution of Dignity.[160] Russia thenannexed Crimea on 18 March.3 killed
2014 pro-Russian unrest in UkraineDonetsk People's RepublicLuhansk People's Republic Pro-Russian separatists
Russia		Ukraine23 February 20142 May 2014As a result of the revolution inKyiv, a pro-Russian unrest in the eastern regions of the country escalated into mass protests and violence between those supporting and opposing the new authorities. In Crimea, the events served as a pretext for a Russian annexation of the region. In Donbas, the situation quickly escalated into a war. Protests in other regions included seizure of government buildings inKharkiv anddeadly clashes inOdesa.Unknown
War in DonbasDonetsk People's Republic
Luhansk People's Republic
Russia

Ukraine

12 April 201424 February 2022[l]As a result of the unrest, a full-fledged war began in the UkrainianDonetsk andLuhansk oblasts, known collectively asDonbas. The separatist republics were proclaimed and captured a strip of land on the border with Russia. Major combat ended with the signing of the secondMinsk agreements in early 2015, with a stalemate lasting until the start of the full-scale invasion by Russia of February 2022.14,000 killed[161]
Russian invasion of Ukraine Ukraine24 February 2022 presentOn 24 February 2022, the War in Donbas escalated when Russian government forces began bombing Ukrainian cities. After the bombings, Russian troops launched an operation on Ukrainian soil and began sending in troops on Ukrainian territory, launching a 'full-scale' invasion. This invasion was supported militarily by the separatistDonetsk People's Republic andLuhansk People's Republic and non-militarily byBelarus. Ukraine received military aid from theUnited States, theEuropean Union, theUnited Kingdom,Australia,Canada, and other countries from theWestern world. On 30 September 2022,Russia, amid anongoing invasion,annexed fouroblasts of Ukraine –Luhansk,Donetsk,Zaporizhzhia andKherson, which were not fully under Russian control at the time. The annexation is the largest in Europe sinceWorld War II, surpassingRussia's 2014 annexation of Crimea.See fatalities
2023 Belgorod Oblast incursions RussiaRussian opposition
Belarusian militant groups
Polish militant groups
Chechen militant groups
 Ukraine (alleged by Russia, denied by Ukraine)[o]		22 May 202317 December 2023Pro-Ukrainian armed rebels invasion of RussiaUnknown
Wagner Group rebellion Russia PMC Wagner23 June 202324 June 2023Mutiny of Wagner PMC against the Russian government15–31 killed
March 2024 western Russia incursion RussiaUkraine[166]
Russian Opposition		12 March 20247 April 2024Pro-Ukrainian Groups And Russian Opposition Groups Invading Western Russia In The Belgorod And Kursk OblastsUnknown (both sides casualties are highly inflated)
Kursk offensive (2024–2025)Russia
North Korea[p]		Ukraine6 August 202416 March 2025Ukrainian occupation of Kursk OblastAround 20,000-30,000 Killed and Wounded

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^Soviet authorities generally sided with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh.[65] Soviet troops were present in Nagorno-Karabakh for2+1⁄2 years and supported Azerbaijani militias.[66] Soviet troops directly intervened duringOperation Ring in April–May 1991 on the Azerbaijani side.[67][68]
  2. ^Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) until 1991.
  3. ^Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (Soviet Armenia) until 1990 (renamed Republic of Armenia)/1991 (declared independence).
  4. ^SeeRussia's role in the conflict section for more details
  5. ^Ceasefire agreement was signed on 1 December 1993,[92] although fighting continued during 1994.
  6. ^The International Crisis Behaviour Project at Duke University defines the crisis as having lasted from 27 July 2002, the date of an attack by Chechen separatists on Russian forces at Itum-Kale in Russia, to 7 October 2002, when Russia and Georgia agreed to joint patrols on their mutual border.[99] This period also included Russian airstrikes on Georgian territory, Georgia's most consequential security operation in the Gorge, and the final exit of Ruslan Gelayev. There had been an armed separatist presence in the Gorge since 1999, and Russia's forceful objections begun, at the latest, in November 2002. Russia's first coercive measures against Georgia took place the next month.
  7. ^Denied by Azerbaijan[105][106] and Turkey.[107]
  8. ^See§ Foreign involvement for more details.
  9. ^See§ Foreign involvement for more details.
  10. ^Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova until 23 May 1991.Constituent republic of theSoviet Union until 27 August 1991.
  11. ^Transnistria is a separatist and internationally unrecognizedde facto state, regarded asMoldovan territory by allUnited Nations members.
  12. ^War escalated asRussia invaded Ukraine on 24 February 2022, however the term "war in Donbas" is not generally used for events occurring after the invasion started.
  13. ^abThe Donetsk People's Republic and the Luhansk People's Republic were Russian puppet states, having declared their independence from Ukraine in May 2014. Several months into the invasion, Russia declared thatit had formally annexed both entities in September 2022. They continue to exist asrepublics of Russia.
  14. ^In 2022, Belarus allowed Russia to use its territory to launch the invasion[162][163][164] and to launch missiles into Ukraine.[165]See:Belarusian involvement in the Russian invasion of Ukraine
  15. ^See§ Ukrainian involvement for more details.
  16. ^From November 2024[167]
  1. ^South Ossetia's status is disputed. It considers itself to be an independent state, but this is recognised byonly a few other countries. TheGeorgian government and most of the world's other states consider South Ossetiade jure a part of Georgia's territory.
  2. ^The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence fromGeorgia in 1992, Abkhaziais formally recognised as an independent state by 5 UN member states (two other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it asde jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it asRussian-occupied territory.
  3. ^Supporters of Alexander Rutskoy, the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies frequently used those flags. The Russian tricolor itself only remained hoisted at the White House building (see video documentaryArchived July 23, 2011, at theWayback Machine).
  4. ^There are "some contradictions and inherent problems" regarding the date on which the Russian operation began.[148] The Ukrainian Government maintains, and theEuropean Court of Human Rights agrees, that Russia controlled Crimea from 27 February 2014,[149] when unmarked Russian special forces took control of its political institutions.[150] The Russian Government later made 27 February "Special Operations Forces Day".[151] In 2015, theUkrainian parliament officially designated 20 February 2014 as "the beginning of thetemporary occupation of Crimea and Sevastopol by Russia",[152] citing the date inscribed on the Russianmedal "For the Return of Crimea".[153] In 2018, Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov claimed that the earlier "start date" on the medal was due to a "technical misunderstanding".[154] President Putin stated in afilm about the annexation that he ordered the operation to "restore" Crimea to Russia following an all-night emergency meeting on 22–23 February 2014.[148][155][156]
  1. ^Reports of some protesters attending under duress from superiors[122]
  2. ^Titushky are provocators during protests.[126]
  3. ^Early November 2012Communist Party party leaderPetro Symonenko stated that his party will not co-operate with other parties in the new parliament elected in the2012 Ukrainian parliamentary election.[146] Nevertheless, inat the time in parliament its parliamentary faction usually voted similarly to theParty of Regions parliamentary faction.[147]

References

[edit]
  1. ^The Kazakh government claimed that the CSTO's operations were solely forpeacekeeping purposes.
  1. ^"Tajikistan: President Meets With Popular Front Commanders". Radio Liberty Archives. 9 July 1997. Archived fromthe original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved23 June 2017.
  2. ^"Американцы боятся белорусских танков. Белоруссия американских санкций не боится" [Americans are afraid of Belarusian tanks. Belarus is not afraid of American sanctions].Lenta.ru (in Russian). 1 March 2002. Archived fromthe original on 20 November 2021.
  3. ^Jonson, Lena (25 August 2006).Tajikistan in the New Central Asia. Bloomsbury Academic.ISBN 9781845112936.Archived from the original on 16 January 2016. Retrieved17 December 2014.
  4. ^Inside Al Qaeda: global network of terror, by Rohan Gunaratna, pg. 169
  5. ^"Iran dismisses Tajik civil war claims as attempt to damage ties".Reuters. Retrieved10 August 2017.
  6. ^"A Thaw Between Tajikistan and Iran, But Challenges Remain". Jamestown. Retrieved10 July 2019.Fearing a continuity of Soviet-era policies, Iran supported the Islamic and nationalist opposition during the civil war.
  7. ^Abdulfattoh, Shafiev (February 2016)."Iran and Tajikistan: A Story of Love and Hate"(PDF).Central Asia Policy Brief.34.At the end of 1992, Tajikistan entered into a bloody civil war. Tehran gave refuge and support to the leaders of the Democratic-Islamic coalition of the Tajik opposition, and was therefore considered to be a pro-Islamic actor. However, it also contributed a critical role in helping peace discussions: Tehran hosted several rounds of the Tajik peace negotiations in 1994, 1995, and 1997, bringing both sides to the discussion table. President Rahmon paid an official visit to Tehran in 1995 and opened an embassy there. But seen from Dushanbe, Moscow was a more reliable ally than Tehran, and any kind of pan-Persian nationalism was rapidly shut down by the authorities.
  8. ^Ahmad, Majidyar."Tajikistan Accuses Iran of Sponsoring Terrorism, Restricts Iranian Organizations' Activities".Middle East Institute. Retrieved9 August 2017.Tajikistan has accused Iran of having played a subversive role in the country's civil war in the 1990s by sending terrorists to the Central Asian republic, the latest sign of deteriorating relations between the two countries.
  9. ^Tajikistan Civil War Global Security
  10. ^Pannier, Bruce (26 June 2017)."The Many Agents Of Tajikistan's Path To Peace". Radio Liberty.Archived from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved4 July 2017.
  11. ^"The Peace Deal That Ended Tajikistan's Bloody Civil War".RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. 27 June 2021.Archived from the original on 31 August 2022. Retrieved31 August 2022.
  12. ^"Kyrgyzstan Marks the 15th Anniversary of the April Revolution".Ferghana Information Agency (Moscow). 7 April 2025. Retrieved22 August 2025.
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  39. ^"Марат Иманкулов заявил, что боевики в рядах армии Таджикистана хотят захватить весь Баткен". 22 September 2022.
  40. ^"К конфликту на кыргызско-таджикской границе может быть причастен Шох Искандаров". 2 May 2021.
  41. ^"Среди боевиков генерала Шоха были сторонники террористических организаций".
  42. ^"Containing The Armed Conflict In Russia (East Prigorodny)".George Mason University.
  43. ^"Turkish Volunteers in Chechnya".Jamestown.Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved14 February 2015.
  44. ^Jaimoukha, Amjad M. (2005).The Chechens: A Handbook.Psychology Press. p. 237.ISBN 978-0-415-32328-4.Archived from the original on 6 September 2024. Retrieved4 December 2017.
  45. ^Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, atGoogle Books
  46. ^Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, atGoogle Books
  47. ^abCooley, John K. (2002).Unholy Wars: Afghanistan, America and International Terrorism (3rd ed.). London:Pluto Press. p. 195.ISBN 978-0-7453-1917-9.A Turkish Fascist youth group, the "Grey Wolves," was recruited to fight with the Chechens.
  48. ^abGoltz, Thomas (2003).Chechnya Diary: A War Correspondent's Story of Surviving the War in Chechnya. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. p. 22.ISBN 978-0-312-26874-9.I called a well-informed diplomat pal and arranged to meet him at a bar favored by the pan-Turkic crowd known as the Gray Wolves, who were said to be actively supporting the Chechens with men and arms.
    ...the Azerbaijani Gray Wolf leader, Iskander, Hamidov...
  49. ^Isingor, Ali (6 September 2000)."Istanbul: Gateway to a holy war".CNN. Archived fromthe original on 17 October 2014.
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  53. ^The Chechens: A Handbook, p. 237, atGoogle Books
  54. ^Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, atGoogle Books
  55. ^Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, atGoogle Books
  56. ^Second Chechen War: Causes, Dynamics and Termination – A Civil War between Risk and Opportunity?, 5 November 2004, Social Science Research Network
  57. ^"TURKISH VOLUNTEERS IN CHECHNYA".The Jamestown Foundation.Archived from the original on 22 July 2015. Retrieved20 May 2015.
  58. ^The Chechens: A Handbook, p. 237, atGoogle Books
  59. ^Politics of Conflict: A Survey, p. 68, atGoogle Books
  60. ^Energy and Security in the Caucasus, p. 66, atGoogle Books
  61. ^""The Battalion of Imam Shamil" claimed attack in St.Petersburg, says they are Al-Qaeda, urging to withdraw troops from Syria - Map of News from Russia. From Vladivostok to Kaliningrad - News from Russia - russia.liveuamap.com".Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved26 April 2017.
  62. ^"Islamic State spokesman calls on other factions to 'repent,' urges sectarian war". The Long War Journal. 23 June 2015.Archived from the original on 24 June 2015. Retrieved24 June 2015.Baghdadi, the "Emir of the Faithful," has "accepted your bayat and has appointed the noble sheikh Abu Muhammad al Qadarī as Wali [or governor] over [the Caucasus]," Adnani says.
  63. ^"ISIS Declares Governorate in Russia's North Caucasus Region". Institute for the Study of War. 23 June 2015.Archived from the original on 4 December 2015. Retrieved24 June 2015.
  64. ^"Казахстан подтвердил убийство двух своих граждан в ходе операции ФСБ".Kommersant (in Russian). 9 March 2024. Retrieved10 March 2024.
  65. ^Panossian 2002, p. 145 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPanossian2002 (help): "Until the dissolution of the USSR, the Soviet authorities sided, in general, with Azerbaijan. ... Soviet troops sent to the conflict area ... on numerous occasions, took the side of the Azerbaijani forces to 'punish' the Armenians for raising the NK issue."
  66. ^Shogren, Elizabeth (21 September 1990)."Armenians Wage Hunger Strike in Regional Dispute: Soviet Union: Five threaten to starve themselves to death unless Moscow ends military rule in Azerbaijan enclave".Los Angeles Times.Soviet troops have been in Nagorno-Karabakh for2+1⁄2 years ... The troops support armed Azerbaijani militias who have imposed a blockade of the region ...
  67. ^Cornell 1999, p. 26: "Sporadic clashes became frequent by the first months of 1991, with an ever-increasing organization of paramilitary forces on the Armenian side, whereas Azerbaijan still relied on the support of Moscow. ... In response to this development, a joint Soviet and Azerbaijani military and police operation directed from Moscow was initiated in these areas during the Spring and Summer of 1991.". sfn error: no target: CITEREFCornell1999 (help)
  68. ^Papazian 2008, p. 25: "units of the 4th army stationed in Azerbaijan and Azeri OMONs were used in 'Operation Ring', to empty a number of Armenian villages in Nagorno-Karabakh in April 1991.". sfn error: no target: CITEREFPapazian2008 (help)
  69. ^"AFGHAN FIGHTERS AIDING AZERBAIJAN IN CIVIL WAR".The Washington Post.Archived from the original on 21 January 2022.
  70. ^Taarnby 2008, p. 6. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTaarnby2008 (help)
  71. ^Brzezinski & Sullivan 1997, p. 616: "It is also revealed that a new force of 200 armed members of the Grey Wolves organization has been dispatched from Turkey in preparation for a new Azeri offensive and to train units of the Azeri army." sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrzezinskiSullivan1997 (help)
  72. ^Griffin, Nicholas (2004).Caucasus: A Journey to the Land Between Christianity and Islam. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 185–186.ISBN 0-226-30859-6.
  73. ^"Украинские националисты УНАО-УНСО признали, что воевали на стороне Азербайджана в Карабахе".panorama.am (in Russian). 17 September 2010. Archived fromthe original on 17 May 2017.
  74. ^""В случае войны мы окажем баку посильную помощь"".euraspravda.ru (in Russian). 5 March 2014.
  75. ^""В случае войны мы окажем Баку посильную помощь"".Minval.az (in Russian).
  76. ^abAzerbaijan: Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh(PDF).Human Rights Watch. 1994.ISBN 1-56432-142-8. Archived fromthe original(PDF) on 28 June 2020. p. xiii "Slavic mercenaries also take part in the fighting. The Slavs on both sides ..."; p. 106 "Russian, Ukrainian, and Belorussian mercenaries or rogue units of the Soviet/Russian Army have fought on both sides."
  77. ^"Турецкие националисты намерены участвовать в новой карабахской войне" [Turkish nationalists intend to participate in a new Karabakh war].REGNUM (in Russian). 14 July 2012.Archived from the original on 14 July 2012. Retrieved12 January 2021.
  78. ^Demoyan 2006, p. 226: "Turkey continued to provide military as well as economic aid to Azerbaijan. As further proof, the Turkish army and intelligence services launched undercover operations to supply Azerbaijan with arms and military personnel. According to Turkish sources, over 350 high-ranking officers and thousands of volunteers from Turkey participated in the warfare on the Azerbaijani side.". sfn error: no target: CITEREFDemoyan2006 (help)
  79. ^"В карабахском селе открылся памятник погибшим в войне кубанским казакам [A monument to the Kuban Cossacks who died in the war was opened in the Karabakh village]" (in Russian).REGNUM News Agency. 30 May 2011. Archived fromthe original on 17 August 2020.
  80. ^According toLeonid Tibilov, President of South Ossetia in 2012-17."Леонид Тибилов поздравил Бако Саакяна с 25-й годовщиной образования Нагорно-Карабахской Республики [Leonid Tibilov congratulated Bako Sahakyan on the 25th anniversary of the formation of the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic]".presidentruo.org (in Russian). President of the Republic of South Ossetia. 2 September 2016. Archived fromthe original on 29 August 2020.В борьбе за свободу и независимость на помощь народу Арцаха пришли и волонтеры из Южной Осетии. Они скрепили нашу дружбу своей праведной кровью, пролитой на вашей благословенной земле. Мы высоко ценим, что вами увековечены их имена в памятниках, названиях улиц и учебных заведений ряда населенных пунктов Вашей республики.
  81. ^de Waal, Thomas (2003).Black Garden: Armenia and Azerbaijan Through Peace and War. New York: New York University Press. p. 285.
  82. ^Winds of Change in Nagorno KarabakhArchived 2011-12-06 at theWayback Machine.Euronews. 28 November 2009.
  83. ^Uppsala Conflict Data Program, Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh – civilians, viewed 2013-05-03
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  85. ^See[81][82][83][84]
  86. ^"Russian threatens Georgia".The Washington Post. 16 June 1992.
  87. ^Georgia: Avoiding War in South Ossetia (Report).International Crisis Group. 26 November 2004. ICG Europe Report 159.Archived(PDF) from the original on 13 August 2008. Retrieved3 April 2022.
  88. ^ab"Militia Tightens Rule over Ex-Soviet State". Washington Post. 19 January 1992. Retrieved10 February 2023.
  89. ^"Gamsakhurdia Loyalists Continue Fight". Los Angeles Times. 20 January 1992. Retrieved10 February 2023.
  90. ^Baev, Pavel K. (2003)."Civil wars in Georgia: corruption breeds violence". In Koehler, Jan; Zurcher, Christoph (eds.).Potentials of Disorder: Explaining Conflict and Stability in the Caucasus and in the Former Yugoslavia. Manchester University Press. p. 132.ISBN 9780719062414.
  91. ^"Rebels take control of Abkhazia".Deseret News. 1 October 1993. Retrieved10 February 2023.
  92. ^"Georgians, Separatists Sign Ceasefire, Peace Accord".News & Record. 1 December 1993. Retrieved10 February 2023.
  93. ^"Remains Of 23 Georgians Killed In 1992–93 Abkhaz War Identified".Radio Liberty. Georgia (Georgian Republic). 6 December 2023.
  94. ^de Waal 2003, p. 252.
  95. ^"Georgia/Abkhazia (1990–present)".University of Central Arkansas.
  96. ^Georgian Revolt Quashed.Washington Post. 20 October 1998.
  97. ^"Abkhazia "on verge of war"".Archived from the original on 15 February 2008.
  98. ^"Caucasus Report (2001)".Radio Free Europe/ Radio Liberty.
  99. ^"Crisis Summary: Pankisi Gorge — 2002".International Crisis Behaviour Project. Duke University. 18 January 2005. Archived fromthe original on 15 November 2024. Retrieved19 April 2025.
  100. ^"Statement by President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev". Russia's President web site. 26 August 2008. Archived fromthe original on 2 September 2008. Retrieved26 August 2008.
  101. ^Dimitri Sanakoev (14 October 2008).South Ossetia and Russia's War on Georgia(PDF). Liberal. p. 2.
  102. ^"Принуждение к конфликту" [Coercion to conflict].Kommersant (in Russian). 16 October 2020. Retrieved21 April 2021.
  103. ^Kramer, Andrew E. (29 January 2021)."Armenia and Azerbaijan: What Sparked War and Will Peace Prevail?".The New York Times. Retrieved4 March 2021.Armenia has said that Turkey was directly involved in the fighting in and around Nagorno-Karabakh, and that a Turkish F-16 fighter shot down an Armenian jet. Turkey denied those accusations.
  104. ^Tsvetkova, Maria; Auyezov, Olzhas (9 November 2020)."Analysis: Russia and Turkey keep powder dry in Nagorno-Karabakh conflict".Reuters. Retrieved4 March 2021.Turkey's support for Azerbaijan has been vital, and Azerbaijan's superior weaponry and battlefield advances have reduced its incentive to reach a lasting peace deal. Ankara denies its troops are involved in fighting but Aliyev has acknowledged some Turkish F-16 fighter jets remained in Azerbaijan after a military drill this summer, and there are reports of Russian and Turkish drones being used by both sides.
  105. ^"Azerbaijan denies Turkey sent it fighters from Syria". 28 September 2020.Archived from the original on 7 October 2020. Retrieved11 October 2020.
  106. ^"Nagorno-Karabakh: Azerbaijan accuses Armenia of rocket attack".The Guardian. 5 October 2020. Retrieved11 October 2020.
  107. ^"Türkiye'nin Dağlık Karabağ'a paralı asker gönderdiği iddiası" (in Turkish). Deutsche Welle. 29 September 2020.Archived from the original on 2 October 2020. Retrieved11 October 2020.
  108. ^Ed Butler (10 December 2020)."The Syrian mercenaries used as 'cannon fodder' in Nagorno-Karabakh".BBC. Retrieved23 July 2024.Although Azerbaijan and its ally Turkey deny the use of mercenaries, researchers have amassed a considerable amount of photographic evidence, drawn from videos and photographs the fighters have posted online, which tells a different story.
  109. ^Cookman, Liz (5 October 2020)."Syrians Make Up Turkey's Proxy Army in Nagorno-Karabakh".Foreign Policy. Retrieved23 July 2024.According to sources within the Syrian National Army (SNA), the umbrella term for a group of opposition militias backed by Turkey, around 1,500 Syrians have so far been deployed to the disputed Nagorno-Karabakh region in the southern Caucasus ... Shortly after conflict erupted between Armenia and Azerbaijan, Turkey sought to mobilize the SNA, sometimes called Turkey's proxy army ... The first fighters were transferred in late September to southern Turkey and then flown from Gaziantep to Ankara, before being transferred to Azerbaijan on Sept. 25.
  110. ^Laurence Broers (February 2021)."Analysing the Second Karabakh War".Conciliation Resources.
  111. ^"ACAPS Briefing note – Armenia-Azerbaijan: Nagorno-Karabakh: Humanitarian impact of the military offensive (06 October 2023)".Reliefweb. October 2023.
  112. ^De La Pedraja, René (2018).The Russian Military Resurgence: Post-Soviet Decline and Rebuilding, 1992–2018.McFarland. pp. 93–94.ISBN 9781476634494.This response was too much for the commander of the 14th Army General Yuri Netkachev, who ordered Russian troops to drive out the Moldovan forces. The 14th Army had always supported the separatists since the very beginning, but this direct support was the first open participation in combat. ... The participation of the 14th Army was indispensable for the victory of the separatists, ... Moldovan forces were concentrated in a forest near Bender, and Lebed decided to stop their advance by relying on his powerful artillery. At 0300 on 3 July massive barrages rained down on the unsuspecting Moldovans ...
  113. ^de Waal, Thomas (2018).Uncertain Ground: Engaging with Europe's De Facto States and Breakaway Territories(PDF).Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 39.Neither side had a proper military force. The intervention of the Russian Fourteenth Army and its commander General Alexander Lebed on behalf of the Transdniestrians was decisive.
  114. ^Kosienkowski, Marcin; Schreiber, William (8 May 2012).Moldova: Arena of International Influences. Lexington.ISBN 9780739173923. Retrieved4 September 2022.
  115. ^"Russia's New Foreign Policy"(PDF).American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research. p. 5. Retrieved10 February 2023.Hence their wholehearted support for Yeltsin in his September–October 1993 confrontation with the Left-nationalist radical supporters of the Supreme Soviet. The Czech President Václav Havel said October 4 that the clashes in Moscow were not simply 'a power struggle, but rather a fight between democracy and totalitarianism.' In a joint statement Presidents Lennart Meri of Estonia, Guntis Ulmanis of Latvia, and Algirdas Brazauskas of Lithuania called the struggle in Moscow 'a contest between a democratically elected President and antidemocratic power structures.' Their Moldovan counterpart, Mircea Snegur, called the Supreme Soviet supporters 'Communist, imperialist forces who want to turn Russia into a concentration camp'. 'In my thoughts I am on the barricades with the defenders of Russian democracy, as I was next to them in August 1991,' Eduard Shevardnadze said in a message to the Kremlin on the late afternoon of October 3, 1993, when the outcome looked quite grim for Yeltsin. 'Deeply concerned about the events in Moscow, I am again expressing my resolute support for President Yeltsin and his allies.'
  116. ^"Yeltsin Receives Widespread Backing for Assault".The Washington Post. 4 October 1993. Retrieved23 June 2024.
  117. ^"'Russian Revolution of October 1993' seen from office of Moldova's ambassador in Moscow. Op-Ed by Anatol Țăranu, ex-ambassador of Moldova to Russia".IPN press agency. 28 September 2023. Retrieved22 January 2024.Unlike Chisinau, the leaders of the Transnistrian separatists supported almost openly the Rutskoy-Khasbulatov camp, sending paramilitaries from Transnistria to the Russian capital to defend the White House. On October 4, the Moldovan ambassador in Moscow gave an interview for the Russian press, in which he warned about the presence of representatives of paramilitary detachments of the Transnistrian separatists among the defenders of the White House.
  118. ^Post, Kyiv (27 January 2014)."EuroMaidan rallies in Ukraine (Jan. 26-27 live updates) - Jan. 27, 2014".Kyiv Post.Archived from the original on 25 December 2022. Retrieved28 November 2022.
  119. ^Під час штурму Банкової постраждали вже 15 правоохоронців [During the storming of Bankova, 15 law enforcement officers were injured].TVi (in Ukrainian). 1 December 2013. Archived fromthe original on 17 December 2014.
  120. ^Golitsina, Natalya (3 April 2014)."Photos Link Yanukovych's Troops To Maidan Massacre".Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.Archived from the original on 28 November 2022. Retrieved28 November 2022.
  121. ^Митинг в поддержку действий президента по защите национальных интересов Украины прошел в Харькове [Rally in support of the president's actions to protect the national interests of Ukraine took place in Kharkiv] (in Russian).Interfax-Ukraine. 30 November 2013.Archived from the original on 26 June 2020. Retrieved9 December 2013.
  122. ^Днепропетровских бюджетников заставляют ехать в Киев на 'Антимайдан' [Dnipropetrovsk state employees are forced to go to Kyiv to 'Antimaydan'].comments.ua (in Russian). UA: Comments. 12 December 2013. Archived fromthe original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved15 December 2013.
  123. ^Кожного привезеного на столичний "антимайдан" ошукали на 500 грн [Everyone brought to the capital's "anti-Maidan" was deceived for UAH 500].Gazeta (in Russian). 14 December 2013.Archived from the original on 13 August 2020. Retrieved15 December 2013.
  124. ^На Євроманда "тітушки" йдуть з металевими трубами ["Aunts" go to Euromand with metal pipes] (in Ukrainian). Kyiv Comments. 29 November 2013. Archived fromthe original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved29 November 2013.
  125. ^'Анти-євромайдан' завершився. 'Тітушки' чекають відмашки 'стартувати' на Майдан? ['Anti-Euromaidan' is over. Are 'aunts' waiting for the 'start' on the Maidan?].Ukrayinska Pravda (in Ukrainian). 29 November 2013.Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved30 November 2013.
  126. ^"Tyagnibok Zaproponuvav rozformuvati Berkut" [Tiagnybok offered to disband 'Berkut'].Ukrainian National News. 2 December 2013. Archived fromthe original on 7 February 2015.
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  131. ^"Друг ПутинаХирург вывел байкеров на баррикады | Украинская правда" [Putin's friend Surgeon takes bikers to barricades | Ukrainian Pravda]. Pravda.com.ua.Archived from the original on 2 March 2014. Retrieved3 March 2014.
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  133. ^"Українські студенти підтримали Євромайдан. У Києві та регіонах – страйки" [Ukrainian students supported Yevromaydan. In Kyiv and regions – Strikes].NEWSru. UA. 26 November 2013. Archived fromthe original on 27 January 2016.
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