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TheSeptember 11 attacks have had profound and wide-ranging political, economic, health and societal effects.
The attacks elicitedmajor rescue and recovery efforts in the affected areas, in particular at theWorld Trade Center site, which wasrebuilt to includea memorial to the victims. Many of the hundreds of workers assisting in these efforts, as well as survivors and people living and working near the site, became seriously ill in the following years and decades due toexposure to toxins, which had spread throughoutNew York City as a result ofthe Twin Towers’ collapse. Mental health problems, especiallypost-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among ordinary citizens and first responders also increased as a result of the attacks.
Patriotism, solidarity and widespread support for first responders and the military pervaded the United States throughout the immediate aftermath of the attacks. Members of ethnic and religious minorities in the US and other Western countries, in particular Muslims, Arabs and those perceived as such, experienced a surge of hate crimes and other discriminatory actions against them and their communities. The attacks cost billions of US dollars in damage and insurance claims, caused thousands of office workers to be displaced or lose their jobs, and dealt damage to the global economy. Cultural effects includemillions of dollars worth in artwork being lost at the World Trade Center andthe Pentagon, andmedia being adapted to remove any possible similarities to the attacks or references to the Twin Towers in the immediate aftermath.
Having occurred early in thetwenty-first century, 9/11 is considered to be a turning point in the history of the US, which was in a relatively unchallenged position in global politics since the end of theCold War a decade earlier.George W. Bush, who became US President in January 2001, dedicated much ofhis presidency to retaliation against the attacks and vast counterterrorism measures, in a series of efforts he dubbed thewar on terror. The US government increased military operations, economic measures, and political pressure on groups that it accused of being terrorists, as well as increasing pressure on the governments and countries it accused of sheltering them. October 2001 saw the first military action initiated by the US. Under this policy,NATO invaded Afghanistan to remove theTaliban regime (which harboredal-Qaeda) and capture al-Qaeda forces, invoking itsArticle 5 for the first time in its history. The US government alsoasserted that the Iraqi government was connected to 9/11.[1] These efforts were started with near-universal support from Americans, but have since become the topic of strenuous debate. Critics point out that the Afghan conflict has contributed to the destabilization of neighboringPakistan[2] and Afghanistan has undergone a long war, culminating in the return of the Taliban in 2021.
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Because of the events that took place on September 11, 2001, American society as a whole suffered dramatically. Recovery took years, and the economy declined drastically after the attacks. Various first responders united that day to help as much as possible. Whether they were paramedics, police officers, firefighters, doctors, nurses, or ordinary civilians, the main objective was to cooperate and help the wounded. More than 1,500 first responders,ironworkers, engineers, heavy equipment operators, and other workers worked atGround Zero to attempt to find survivors and clean up the wreckage.[3] Cranes and bulldozers were brought in along withsearch and rescue dogs[4] in order to locate survivors and bodies of the deceased, however, operations were hindered by the presence of approximately two feet ofsoot at the site, which obscured objects and bodies.[5]
In the immediate aftermath of the attacks, only 20 survivors were pulled alive from the rubble,[6] although there were several human remains and belongings that were removed from the site. The day after the attack, then-mayorRudy Giuliani told reporters that they were receiving mobile phone calls from people trapped in the debris.[5] The task of removing debris and rubble continued well into 2002, with some 108,000 truckloads of 1.8 million tons of rubble removed by May 2002.[7]
Outside of the general hazards due to fires, falling debris, heavy machinery, broken metal, and hazardous air conditions, there were also hidden concerns within the clean-up zone. The parking garage under the World Trade Center at the time of the attacks held nearly 2,000 automobiles; each held an estimated 5 gallons of gasoline, which could ignite and explode. Other concerns were around buried fuel tanks that were located on the site, and the 1.2 million rounds of ammunition that were housed atBuilding 6 for the use of theU.S. Customs Service.[8]
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks, George W. Bush's job approval rating soared to 86%.[9] On September 20, 2001, the president spoke before the nation and a joint-session ofCongress, regarding the events of that day, the intervening nine days of rescue and recovery efforts, and his intent in response to those events in going after the terrorists who orchestrated the attacks. In the speech, he characterized the speech itself as being akin to the President's customaryState of the Union address.
The attacks also had immediate and overwhelming effects upon the United States population. People began rallying around the popularized phrase, "United We Stand," in hopes of being resilient and keeping the American spirit alive in the face of a devastating attack. The majority of the US population rallied behind President Bush and the federal government in widespread support to the recovery and the expectant reaction to the attacks. The highly visible role played byRudy Giuliani, the Mayor of New York City, won him high praise nationally and in New York City.[10] He was namedPerson of the Year byTime magazine for 2001, and at times had a higher profile in the US than President Bush.
Two major public reactions to the attacks were a surge of public expressions of patriotism not seen sinceWorld War II, marked most often by displays of the American flag; and an unprecedented level of respect, sympathy, and admiration for New York City and New Yorkers as a group by Americans in other parts of the United States. Some criticized this particular reaction, noting that not everyone who died was from New York City (for example, some of the passengers on the planes) and that theArlington County, Virginia community also suffered in the attacks. Many people joined together to help the victims. Gratitude toward uniformed public-safety workers, and especially toward firefighters, was widely expressed in light of both the drama of the risks taken on the scene and the high death toll among the workers. Many people paid tribute to the police officers and firefighters who died during the attacks by wearing NYPD and FDNY hats. The number of casualties among the emergency service personnel was unprecedented.
Blood donations saw a surge in the weeks after 9/11. According to a report by theJournal of the American Medical Association, "...the number of blood donations in the weeks after September 11, 2001, attacks was markedly greater than in the corresponding weeks of 2000 (2.5 times greater in the first week after the attacks; 1.3–1.4 times greater in the second to fourth weeks after the attack)."[11] At theWestminster Kennel Club Dog Show that took place in New York in February 2002, a tribute was paid to the search and rescue dogs who not only assisted in locating survivors and bodies from the rubble but were also inside the World Trade Center buildings before they collapsed.
In weeks following the attacks, there was a surge in incidents of harassment and hate crimes againstSouth Asians, Middle Easterners, and anyone thought to be "Middle Eastern-looking" people—particularlySikhs, because Sikh males usually wearturbans, which arestereotypically and erroneously associated with Muslims by many Americans.Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh man, was one of the first victims of thisbacklash; he was shot dead on September 15 at the gas station he owned inMesa, Arizona.Mark Anthony Stroman, a white supremacist, killed two men and injured a third in ashooting spree beginning September 15 inDallas,Texas. His victims, includingBangladeshi AmericanRais Bhuiyan, were all targeted because they looked "of Muslim descent". His motive for the killings was revenge for the 9/11 attacks.[12] In New York City itself, the only death possibly related to post-9/11 hate violence officially recorded as a homicide wasHenryk Siwiak, aPolish immigrant shot inBedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn on September 11. His family theorized he may have been the victim of a hate crime in the wake of the attacks, since he was wearing camouflage clothing, had dark hair and spoke imperfect, heavily accented English.[13] The case remains unsolved; police are open to the family's theory but have not classified the killing as a bias crime.[14]
In many cities there were reports of vandalism against mosques and other Islamic institutions, including some cases of arson.[15][16][17][18] In the year after the attack, anti-Muslim hate crimes jumped 1,600 percent and this is further aggravated by a climate of prejudice that manifests in different ways.[19] The FBI and other government agencies arrested and deported Arabs and Arab Americans in higher numbers after the attacks than before, often with limited or insufficient evidence to connect them to purported terrorism.[20]
As memorials were set up all over NY and even in the 9/11 museum, Talat Hamdani's request to honor her son, Salman Hamdani, was denied.[21] Salman Hamdani was an off-duty EMT and an NYPD cadet who died as he went to the towers to help save others. Salman Hamdani was Pakistani-American and his mother Talat Hamdani received public assault of his character as they believe because of their Muslim faith, he must have been involved with the attacks as he was missing. Talat was questioned and asked about the reasons Salman joined the NYPD, his travel experience and who he was in contact with. News outlets like the New York Post published a story, "Missing or Hiding? — Mystery of NYPD Cadet from Pakistan",[22] and multiple "Wanted" posters that had pictures from his cadet days stating "Hold and detain. Notify: major squad case".[23] His body was found a month after the event and was declared a hero by congress, 45 days after the attack. But nothing denies the discrimination especially after the 9/11 has put his name originally under the list of non- first responders.[24][25]
In the hopes of dissuading Islamophobic violence, President Bush deliveredremarks at the Islamic Center of Washington on September 17 in which he distinguished between al-Qaeda and Islam writ large, affirming that "Islam is peace"; he also criticized Americans who would "take out their anger" about 9/11 against Muslim individuals, calling them "the worst of humankind".[26][27][28] Compared to the days immediately preceding Bush's speech, there were fewer hate crimes againstMuslims in the United States in the days after it.[29] ThePew Research Center reported that in November 2001, 59% of Americans, relatively evenly distributed among bothRepublicans andDemocrats, reported viewing Islam favorably, an increase in positive disposition compared to 45% that March. This shared outlook did not last, however, and over subsequent years views of Islam diverged along partisan lines as Republicans increasingly associated Islam with violence.[30]
The attacks were regarded by some as particularly disturbing to children, in part because of the frequency with which the images were replayed on television. Many schools closed early, especially those with children whose parents worked in Washington, D.C., and New York City. In Sarasota, Florida,Emma E. Booker Elementary School became a part of history, as PresidentGeorge W. Bush was reading to a classroom of children there when the attacks happened.[31]
Psychological studies focused on children exposed to the attacks inLower Manhattan and New York City found higher rates of clinically significant behavior problems among preschool children, as well as elevated rates ofPTSD and depression in the years after the attacks.[32] For children who lost a parent in the attack, psychologists noticed that while some coped well initially, they would at times succumb to bouts ofdepression andself-harm later in life, or become reluctant to discuss their family history.[33]
The thousands of tons of toxic debris resulting from the collapse of the Twin Towers contained more than 2,500 contaminants, including known carcinogens.[34][35] Subsequentdebilitating illnesses among rescue and recovery workers are said to be linked to exposure to these carcinogens.[36][37] The Bush administration ordered theEnvironmental Protection Agency (EPA) to issue reassuring statements regarding air quality in the aftermath of the attacks, citing national security; however, the EPA did not determine that air quality had returned to pre-September 11 levels until June 2002.[38]
Health effects also extended to residents, students, and office workers of Lower Manhattan and nearbyChinatown.[39] Several deaths have been linked to the toxic dust, and the victims' names were included in the World Trade Center memorial.[40] As of January 1, 2002, the New York Police Department had received 37 disability claims, and the Fire Department reported 269 disability claims related to injuries suffered as a result of the attacks.[41] Approximately 18,000 people have been estimated to have developed illnesses as a result of the toxic dust.[42] By 2004, nearly half of more than 1,000 screened rescue-and-recovery workers and volunteers reported new and persistent respiratory problems, and more than half reported persistentpsychological symptoms.[43] Because of the long latency period between exposure and development of asbestos-related diseases, exposedManhattan residents, especially rescue-and-recovery workers, can suffer future adverse health effects. One such death related to health effects was the January 6, 2006, death of NYPDJames Zadroga which was ruled by a New Jersey coroner as directly due to clean-up at the WTC site.[44] This ruling was unequivocally rejected in October 2007 by the New York City Chief Medical Examiner, Dr. Charles Hirsch, and Medical Examiner Michele Slone.[45] On June 29, 2019, former New York Police Department detective Luis G. Alvarez died fromcolorectal cancer, with which he was diagnosed in 2016 and is believed to be caused from his three months spent at Ground Zero after 9/11.[46][47]
There is also scientific speculation that exposure to various toxic products in the air may have negative effects on fetal development. A notablechildren's environmental health center is currently analyzing the children whose mothers were pregnant during the WTC collapse and were living or working nearby.[48] A study of rescue workers released in April 2010 found that all those studied had impaired lung functions, and that 30–40% were reporting little or no improvement in persistent symptoms that started within the first year of the attack.[49]
Years after the attacks, legal disputes over the costs of illnesses related to the attacks were still in the court system. On October 17, 2006, a federal judge rejected New York City's refusal to pay for health costs for rescue workers, allowing for the possibility of numerous suits against the city.[50] Government officials have been faulted for urging the public to return to lower Manhattan in the weeks shortly after the attacks. Christine Todd Whitman, administrator of the EPA in the aftermath of the attacks, was heavily criticized by a U.S. District Judge for incorrectly saying that the area was environmentally safe.[51] Mayor Giuliani was criticized for urging financial industry personnel to return quickly to the greaterWall Street area.[52]
After the terrorist attack, various repercussions took place that affected the U.S as a whole. All the money and claims that were being put out to help aid the victims of the attack, as well as different security and laws to protect the U.S, caused several layoffs and unemployment. Specifically, it was said that 462 extended masses were layoffs because of the attacks that displaced approximately 130,000 employees.[53] The unemployment rate inclined to a total of 5.0%.
The attacks caused an estimated overall economic loss to the city of $82.8 to 94.8 billion, with the lower number being consistent with the NYC Partnership's November 2001 estimate and the high end being consistent with the New York CityComptroller's October 2001 estimate.[41] It was calculated that the lost human productive value, life insurance payouts were $2.63 billion, federal payments after offsets were estimated at $2.34 billion and charitable payments were $0.79 billion.[41]
After 9/11,Clear Channel Communications (an owner of over 1,000 radio stations in the U.S.) releaseda list of songs deemed "inappropriate". The songs were not banned, but stations were advised not to play them.[54]
Films and television programs produced before 2001 that feature the Twin Towers of theWorld Trade Center or events similar to 9/11 have been edited in re-airings on television such as the episode ofThe Simpsons, "The City of New York vs. Homer Simpson," where the main setting is the World Trade Center.[55][56]
The New York-based bandDream Theater released a live album titledLive Scenes from New York on September 11, 2001. The cover art depicted the Manhattan skyline, including theWorld Trade Center towers in flames. It was immediately recalled, and the artwork altered.
British bandBush changed the name of their single 'Speed Kills' to "The People That We Love". They also changed the original artwork for their albumGolden State before it was released which originally depicted a picture of a plane in mid-air.
The music video for a song called 'Piece By Piece' by British bandFeeder was also changed. The original video depicted animated characters of the band playing in a New York skyscraper with the World Trade Center in the background and planes flying near by. The band later jump from the window of the building.
It was projected by one individual that the public art that was damaged or destroyed during the attacks was valued at $10 million. Art byLouise Nevelson,Alexander Calder, andJames Rosati were all destroyed along with a memorial sculpture byElyn Zimmerman in memorial for the victims of the1993 World Trade Center Bombing.[57]
As of August 2002, there were approximately 1,464 claims against the city of New York City that amounted to approximately $8.2 billion, although theNew York City Law Department indicated at the time that the City's liability for the claims would only be around $350 million, provided through an act of Congress. The claims ranged from City employee's personal injuries that totaled around $5.2 billion, suffering due to the loss of life that totaled around $3 billion, and for the destruction of property such as the one filed by AEGIS Insurance Company for $250 million.[41]
Following the road to recovery, the federal government and state begin issuing grants and various funds to compensate and help those who suffered. The9/11 Heroes Stamp Program was administered by theDepartment of Homeland Security which gave funds to those who became disabled from direct contact in the attack or suffered a loss from the attack.[58] ThePost- 9/11 GI Bill became a result after 9/11, paying homage to the U.S military soldiers, which provided educational and financial assistance to those soldiers who were returning to civilian life.[58] Federal grant aid assisted states, communities, and local organizations in their efforts to stay safe and remain readily prepared.[58] For that to happen the programlaw enforcement training and technical assistance grant was created hoping to stop or better compose for a terrorist attack.
TheSeptember 11th Victim Compensation Fund (VCF) was established to provide financial assistance to those that experienced the disaster directly or those who lost family members from the attack.[59] The fund has provided reimbursements for medical treatments for various conditions affecting victims, including PTSD and health effects from being exposed to toxic air.
The attacks affected trade relations with foreign countries, complicating the supply of oil demands. After the attack, oil prices skyrocketed.[53]
Rebuilding of the area began shortly after clean up, and construction began on theFreedom Tower and theNational September 11 Memorial and Museum.[7]
Park51 (originally named Cordoba House) is a planned 13-story Muslimcommunity center to be located two blocks from theWorld Trade Center site[60][61] inLower Manhattan. The majority of the center will be open to the general public and its proponents have said the center will promote interfaith dialogue. It will contain a Muslim prayer space that has controversially[62][63] been referred to as the "Ground Zero mosque", though numerous commentators noted that it was neither a mosque nor at Ground Zero.
It would replace an existing 1850sItalianate-style building that was being used as aBurlington Coat Factory before it was damaged in the September 11 attacks. The proposed multi-faith aspects of the design include a 500-seat auditorium, theater, a performing arts center, a fitness center, a swimming pool, a basketball court, a childcare area, a bookstore, a culinary school, an art studio, a food court, and a memorial to the victims of the September 11 attacks. The prayer space for the Muslim community would accommodate 1,000–2,000 people.[60][64]
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After thedissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the US had begun adapting to smaller-scale, specialized warfare in the absence of a major adversary, yet overlooked the emergence ofmilitant organizations, usually based in and oftenfunded by countries that were considered insignificant global players in the past. The US was not spared by foreign terrorism prior to 9/11, including bombings onUS embassies in African countries andthe USS Cole, as well asa previous attack on the World Trade Center. The September 11 attacks, whichkilled over 2,700 people in New York City alone, proved that these smaller organizations were capable of inflicting mass casualties on theUS mainland, and inaugurated terrorism as a major security threat to the US. Due to its resemblance to theattack on Pearl Harbor, American commentators saw 9/11 as a declaration of war.[65]
On October 23, 2001, theUnited States Department of Justice produced amemorandum titledAuthority for Use of Military Force to Combat Terrorist Activities Within the United States. It states that the President has both the constitutional and statutory authority to use the military as a means to combat terrorist activity within the United States.[66]
Three days later, on October 26, 2001, Congress passed thePatriot Act,[67] which broadened the powers of law enforcement to identify terrorist activity. For example, law enforcement was allowed able to break one's premises without a search warrant and their consent, if they were suspected of terrorist activity. This also includedroving wiretaps as a method of surveillance. For instance, the government was allowed to search through one's record searches and intelligence searches. Specifically, if one searched terrorism activities or showed unusual behavior and then deleted their history, the government was able to see that. The purpose of this act was to catch acts of terrorism before any attacks were planned and executed. A program calledTotal Information Awareness was developed to enhance the technology that would collect and analyze information about every individual in the United States, and trace unusual behaviors that could help prevent terrorist activities. Information that was gathered through the program included internet activity, credit card purchase histories, airline ticket purchases, and medical records.
Due to many Americans gaining afear of flying, automobile usage increased after the attacks. This resulted in an estimated 1,595 additional highway deaths in the ensuing year.[68] This fear of flying also created theTransportation Security Administration (TSA), which is used to increase safety and reduce fear of flying in citizens.
In November 2001, Congress passed theAviation and Transportation Security Act which applied to different types of transportation, not just air travel.[69] The evolution of security and protective services changed tremendously due to the attacks. Immediate changes included air travel policies,airport security and screening, and guidelines that must be obeyed before getting on board.
Additional screening was another main focus that took place during the period after the attacks, and many passengers were prescreened and advanced screened at different security checkpoints. This led to the major issue of racial profiling and invasion of privacy, as many Middle Eastern-looking people were singled out for further screening. Luggage screening was another main objective, as new technology was introduced to scan passengers' luggage thoroughly and search for weapons or bombs. In addition, some pilots were required by theDepartment of Homeland Security to carry a firearm on board. Better known as aFederal flight deck officer, these pilots undergo training to prevent terrorist attacks or other potential dangers on an airplane.
Bombings inKabul,Afghanistan occurred after the attacks and were reposted live by CNN correspondentNic Robertson less than 24 hours after the attacks in America.[73]
The attacks had major worldwide political effects. Many other countries introduced tough anti-terrorism legislation and took action to cut off terrorist finances, including the freezing ofbank accounts suspected of being used to fund terrorism. Law enforcement and intelligence agencies stepped up cooperation to arrest terrorist suspects and break up suspected terrorist cells around the world.
Reaction to the attacks in the Muslim world was mixed. Also, shortly after the attack, the media picked up on several celebrations of the attacks in the Middle East with images of these celebrations being broadcast on television and published in print. Less publicized were public displays of sympathy, including candlelight vigils in countries like Iran.[74]
In the immediate aftermath, support for the United States' right to defend itself was expressed across the world, and byUnited Nations Security Council Resolution 1368.[75] TheAustralian Prime Minister,John Howard, was in Washington D.C. at the time of the attacks and invoked theANZUS military alliance as a pledge of Australian assistance to the U.S.
In the immediate aftermath of the attacks many United States–based airports would not accept airplane flights to land, causingOperation Yellow Ribbon in which all incoming international flights were rerouted by theFAA to airports in Canada.[76] Many Canadians opened up their homes to stranded travelers and organizations such as theSociety for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals gave comfort to animals and other special groups that were stranded by the diversions.[77]
In France, calls to the United States Embassy were placed by locals who offered rooms within their homes to stranded passengers and observed the official day of mourning with three minutes of silence and stillness.[78]
The attack prompted numerousmemorials and services all over the world with many countries, along with the United States, declaring anational day of mourning. In Berlin, 200,000Germans marched to show their solidarity with America.[citation needed] The French newspaper of record,Le Monde, ran a front-page headline reading "Nous sommes Tous Américains", or "We are all Americans".[79] In London, the US national anthem was played at theChanging of the Guard atBuckingham Palace.[80] In the UK, national anthems are typically only played for official state visits. To markQueen Elizabeth II's Golden Jubilee, New York City lit the Empire State Building in purple and gold, to say "thank you" for this action.[citation needed]
Hate crimes against Muslims increased around the world. For example, Canada experienced a 16-fold increase in anti-Muslim attacks immediately a year after 9/11.[81] In the year leading to the attack, there were only 11 reported crimes but a year following 9/11, there were 173 hate crime cases reported.[81] The same also happened in the United Kingdom and Australia. In the latter's case, a study conducted in Sydney and Melbourne revealed an overwhelming majority of Muslim residents who experienced racism or racist violence since the attack.[81] Another study claimed that hate crimes "increased for all Muslims after 9/11, although the relative risk was much higher for those individuals living in countries with smaller Muslim populations."[82]
An increase in racial tensions was seen in countries such asEngland, with a number of violent crimes linked to the September 11th attacks.[83] The most severe example was seen inPeterborough, where teenagerRoss Parker was murdered by a gang of up to ten Muslims ofPakistani background who had sought a white male to attack.[84][85][86][87]
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