State of India Estado da Índia (Portuguese) | |
|---|---|
| 1505–1961 | |
| Anthem: Hymno Patriótico (1808–1826) "Patriotic Anthem" Hino da Carta (1826–1911) "Hymn of the Charter" A Portuguesa (1911–1961) "The Portuguese" | |
 | |
| Status | State of Portugal (1505–1946) Overseas province of Portugal (1946–1961) |
| Capital | |
| Official language | Portuguese |
| Common languages | |
| Religion | Official: Roman Catholicism Major: Hinduism Islam Minor: Zoroastrianism[1][2] Judaism[3] Protestantism |
| Monarch and Head of State | |
• 1505–1521 | Manuel I of Portugal |
• 1958–1961 | Américo Tomás |
| Governor | |
• 1505–1509 | Francisco de Almeida (first) |
• 1958–1961 | Manuel António Vassalo e Silva (last) |
| Historical era | Imperialism |
• Establishment | 15 August 1505 |
| 19 December 1961 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 4,305 km2 (1,662 sq mi) |
| Currency |
|
| Today part of | |
TheState of India,[4] also known as thePortuguese State of India[5] orPortuguese India,[6] was astate of the Portuguese Empire founded seven years afterthe discovery of the sea route to theIndian subcontinent byVasco da Gama, asubject of theKingdom of Portugal. The capital of Portuguese India served as the governing centre of a string ofmilitary forts andmaritime ports scattered along the coasts of theIndian Ocean.
Francisco de Almeida, the first viceroy, established his base of operations atFort Manuel in theMalabar region, after theKingdom of Cochin negotiated to become aprotectorate of Portugal in 1505. With thePortuguese conquest of Goa from theBijapur Sultanate in 1510,Goa became the majoranchorage for theArmadas arriving in India. The capital of the viceroyalty was transferred from Cochin to Goa in 1530.[7][8] From 1535,Mumbai (Bombay) was aharbour of Portuguese India, known asBom Bahia, until it was handed over toCharles II of England in 1661 as part of thedowry ofCatherine de Braganza. The expression "State of India" began regularly appearing in documents in the mid-16th century.[9]
Until the 18th century, the viceroy in Goa had authority over all Portuguese possessions in and around the Indian Ocean, fromSouthern Africa toSoutheast Asia. In 1752,Mozambique was granted its own separate government; from 1844 on, Portuguese Goa stopped administeringMacao,Solor andTimor. Despite this, the viceroy at Goa only controlled limited portions of thePortuguese settlements in the east; some settlements remained informal private affairs, without a captain orcâmara (municipal council). By the end of the 18th century, most of these unofficial colonies were abandoned by Portugal, due to heavy competition from European and Indian rivals.[10]
In later years, Portugal's authority was confined to holdings in theCanara,Cambay andKonkan regions along thewest coast of India. At the time of the dissolution of theBritish Raj in 1947, Portuguese India comprised threeadministrative divisions, sometimes referred to collectively asGoa:Goa (which includedAnjediva Island),Damaon (which included theexclaves ofDadra and Nagar Haveli) andDio district. TheSalazar regime of Portugallost de facto control of Dadra and Nagar Haveli in 1954. Finally, the rest of the overseas territory was lost in December 1961 with the IndianAnnexation of Goa underJawaharlal Nehru. Portugal only recognised Indian control after theCarnation Revolution and the fall of theEstado Novo regime, in a treaty signed on 31 December 1974.[11][12]
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The first Portuguese encounter with the subcontinent was on 20 May 1498, whenVasco da Gama reachedCalicut, now Kozhikode, on theMalabar Coast. Anchored off the coast of Calicut, the Portuguese invited native fishermen on board and bought some Indian items. One Portuguese convict accompanied the fishermen to the port and met with a Tunisian Muslim, who greeted him inCastillian Spanish, saying, "May the Devil take you! What brought you here?"[13] On the advice of this man, Gama sent a small group of his men toPonnani to meet with the ruler of Calicut, theZamorin. Over the objections of Arab merchants, Gama managed to secure aletter of concession for trading rights from the Zamorin, but the Portuguese were unable to pay the prescribed customs duties and price of his goods in gold.[14]
Later, Calicut officials temporarily detained Gama's Portuguese agents as security for payment. This angered Gama, who captured several natives and sixteen fishermen, whom he took with him by force.[15]
Da Gama left for Portugal in August 1498, landing in January 1499. Whilst the valuable items he brought back with him were few, they ignited a "fever of excitement and activity" at the opportunities for wealth that they represented.[16]
Pedro Álvares Cabral sailed to India to trade forblack pepper and other spices and arrived atCalicut on 13 September 1500, where he established afactory. When Cabral seized a ship belonging to a resident of the city as part of a dispute with the Zamorin, the factory was attacked by the city's residents, resulting in the deaths of more than fifty Portuguese.[17] Cabral was outraged by the attack on the factory and seized ten Arab merchant vessels anchored in the harbor, killing about six hundred of their crew, confiscating their cargo, and burning the ships. Cabral also ordered his ships to bombard Calicut for an entire day in retaliation for the violation of the agreement.
Despite Cabral's use of mass violence, he succeeded in making advantageous treaties with local rulers inCochin andCannanore. Cabral embarked upon his return voyage on 16 January 1501 and arrived in Portugal on 23 June 1501 with only 4 of the 13 ships with which he had begun the journey.
The third Portuguese expedition to reach India sailed under the command ofJoão da Nova and was composed of four ships, tasked mainly with acquiring spices and returning to Europe. While en route, the fleet discovered the islands ofAscension andSaint Helena in the South Atlantic. Despite the voyage having been planned as a purely commercial expedition, the fleet clashed with vessels belonging to the Zamorin off the shore of Calicut in theFirst Battle of Cannanore, the first significant naval battle of Portuguese India.
In 1502, Portuguese traders, not known to be associated with da Nova, built a trading post inPulicat, its location at the mouth of a lagoon making it an advantageous natural harbour.[18]
Vasco da Gama sailed to India for thesecond time with 15 ships and 800 men, arriving at Calicut on 30 October 1502. On this occasion, Gama made a call to expel all Muslims fromCalicut, which was rejected. The ruler showed willingness to sign a treaty, but Gama bombarded the city and captured several rice vessels after he was informed that the Zamorin was messaging neighbouring rulers to join him in resisting the Portuguese.[19] While in India, Gama also attacked and plunderedHonnavar, threatenedBhatkal into agreeing to become atributary state, established a trade treaty and trading post atCananore, and clashed with a fleet belonging to the Zamorin at theBattle of Calicut of 1503. He returned to Portugal in September 1503.[20]
The expedition of 1503 was the first time its commanderAfonso de Albuquerque sailed to India. Its activities were limited to erecting a fort on the territory of the allied kingdom of Cochin, signing a peace with the Zamorin which would be broken within the year, and opening a new trading post atKollam.[16]
The sixth Portuguese expedition to India was commanded byLopo Soares de Albergaria, who bombarded Calicut, relievedDuarte Pacheco Pereira and the Portuguese garrison at Cochin defending the territory from a large attack by the Zamorin at theBattle of Cochin, sackedCranganore, struck an allegiance with theking of Tanur which removed him from the suzerainty of the Zamorin, and finally captured a large Egyptian trade fleet at theBattle of Pandarane.
On 25 March 1505,Francisco de Almeida was appointedViceroy of India byManuel I of Portugal, on the condition that he would set up four forts on the southwestern Indian coast:Anjediva,Cannanore,Cochin andQuilon.[21] Almeida left Portugal with a fleet of 22 vessels carrying 1,500 men that same day.[21]
On 13 September, Almeida reached Anjadip Island, where he started the construction ofFort Anjediva.[21] On 23 October, with the permission of the friendly ruler ofKolattunādu, he started buildingFort St Angelo of Cannanore, leaving Lourenço de Brito in charge with 150 men and two ships.[21]
On 31 October 1505, Almeida reachedCochin with only eight vessels left in the fleet.[21] There, he learned that the Portuguese traders at Quilon had been killed. He decided to dispatch his sonLourenço de Almeida to exact vengeance. With six ships, Lourenço destroyed 27Calicut vessels in Quilon's harbour.[21] Almeida took up residence in Cochin and strengthenedFort Manuel.
The Zamorin prepared a fleet of 200 ships to oppose the Portuguese, but in March 1506,Lourenço de Almeida was victorious in theBattle of Cannanore (1506), forcing the Zamorin to retreat, though leaving most of his fleet intact.[16] Lourenço de Almeida went on to explore the coastal waters southwards toColombo, in what is nowSri Lanka, where he established a treaty withKing Parakramabahu VIII. In Cannanore, a new ruler, hostile to the Portuguese and friendly with the Zamorin, attacked the Portuguese garrison, leading to theSiege of Cannanore.
In 1507 Almeida's forces were strengthened by the arrival ofTristão da Cunha's squadron.Afonso de Albuquerque's squadron had split from Cunha's off East Africa and was independently conquering territories in thePersian Gulf to the west.
In March 1508, a Portuguese squadron under the command of Lourenço de Almeida was attacked by a combinedMameluk Egyptian andGujarat Sultanate fleet atChaul andDabul respectively, led by admiralsMirocem andMeliqueaz in theBattle of Chaul. Whilst Lourenço de Almeida died in the battle, Mamluk-Indian resistance was decisively defeated at theBattle of Diu in 1509.
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In 1509,Afonso de Albuquerque was appointed the secondgovernor of Portuguese possessions in the East. After acquiring their firstprotectorate inPortuguese Cochin, a new fleet underMarshal Fernão Coutinho arrived with specific instructions to destroy the power of theZamorin of Calicut. The Zamorin's palace was captured and destroyed, and the city was set on fire. The Zamorin's forces rallied, killing Coutinho and wounding Albuquerque, prompting Albuquerque to withdraw with his forces. Alberquerque then conspired with the Zamorin's brother to have him assassinated in 1513, whereupon he entered into agreement with the usurping successor to protect Portuguese interests in Malabar, and to allow the construction of a fort in Calicut.[22]
In 1510, Albuquerquecaptured Goa from theBijapur Sultanate sultan with the aid of the Hindu privateerTimoja, leading to the establishment of a permanent settlement in the city ofVelha Goa (Old Goa in English). Old Goa became the seat of theviceroy, who governed all the Portuguese possessions in Asia.
Albuquerque added to the State of India the cities ofMalacca in 1511 andOrmus in 1515. To enforce his power over the growing empire's population, the great majority of which was not Portuguese, Albuquerque resorted to medieval Iberian procedures: people of different religions were allowed to live by their own laws under representatives of their respective communities.[23] An exception was made for the practice ofsati, which was abolished, along with certain taxes due to theSultan of Bijapur.[24] Albuquerque encouraged the settlement of his soldiers and their marriage to native women, offering financial incentives for those who did; within two months, there were 200 suchcasados ("married men") in Goa, and by the mid-16th century, there were about 2000.[25]
Albuquerque's policies led to the granting of property rights to Goan women,[26] and the institution of an orphan's fund and a hospital, theHospital Real de Goa, modelled after the grandHospital Real de Todos os Santos in Lisbon.[27] Smaller hospitals were also built, run by the city's charity, theMisericórdia, dedicated to serving the poor and locals.[28]
Albuquerque's policies, particularly his disruption of Muslim dominance over trade in the Indian Ocean, won him the loyalty of the Hindu population of the city. When Albuquerque died in sight of Goa in 1515, the Hindu community of Goa mourned his passing alongside the Portuguese.[29][30] His tomb at theNossa Senhora da Serra hermitage was converted to a shrine by the local populace, who would leave flowers there in his dedication and direct prayers to him, seeking aid in matters of justice, until his remains were returned to Portugal in 1566.[31]
In 1520, the Portuguese extended their dominion over the town ofRachol whenKrishnadevaraya capturedRachol Fort and delivered it to the Portuguese in exchange for a mutualdefence pact against theDeccan Sultanates.
In 1526,John III of Portugal granted the city of Goa and its town hall the same legal status asLisbon, in aforal in which the general laws and privileges of the city, its town hall, and the local Hindu community were detailed. This document is of special historical significance, since at the time the native laws of Goa were passed down by oral tradition; the foral is the first time they enter the written historical record.[32]
By 1530 there were Portuguese settlements in and around theCoromandel region. TheLuz Church in theMylapore neighbourhood ofMadras (Chennai), built in 1516, was the first in the area built by the Portuguese. The shrine ofSão Tomé orSan Thome, built upon the purported site of his martyrdom, was found by the Portuguese in a state of neglect in 1517; they rebuilt it in 1522.[33]
Several colonies were also acquired from theSultan of Guzerat in the northKonkan region:Daman was sacked in 1531 and ceded in 1539;Salsette, theseven islands of Bombay,Chaul andBassein (Vasai) in 1534; andDiu, in 1535. These would jointly come to be known as the Northern Province of Portuguese India. The province extended almost 100 km (62 mi) along the west coast from Daman to Chaul and in some places 30–50 km (19–31 mi) inland. The territory ofPortuguese Bombay had itscity centre in and around theBassein Fort; its administrative capital, and the sea of the viceroy, wasVelha Goa in south Konkan country. From here, the viceroy exercised imperial power over Goa and Portugal's other colonies in theIndian subcontinent, such asPortuguese Ceylon andPortuguese Chittagong.[34]
TheOttoman Empire laid theSiege of Diu in 1538, with a strong fleet under the command of the Ottoman governor of EgyptSulaiman Pasha. The siege lasted for four months, with the aid of a largearmy provided by theSultan of Guzerat; after a failed assault on the fortress, and in the face of a huge fleet of Portuguese reinforcements, they were ultimately forced to retreat with considerable losses.[35] The successful defence of Dio by captain António da Silveira against overwhelming odds is one of the most celebrated exploits in Portuguese history.[36] During the siege, the Portuguese captured theTiro de Diu, a massive Guzerati bombard.[37]
A cholera epidemic - the first described by Europeans - swept in Goa in 1543, leading to widespread mortality. According to historian Tim Dyson, "It is said that deaths from the disposal of the disease were so numerous that the disposal of bodies was a formidable task"[38]
As the colony developed, religious freedoms were lessened.[39][40]King John III of Portugal issued an edict on 8 March 1546 to forbid Hinduism and destroy Hindu religious sites, and in 1550 a special religious tax was imposed uponmosques.[41] On 16 May 1546, the Jesuit missionaryFrancis Xavier, who had been instrumental in a mass conversion of 30,000Paravar fishermen atCape Comorin,[42] requested the institution of theGoa Inquisition in a letter to the king;[43] the inquisition was officially established in 1560.[44] Over the course of the next century, the inquisition would bring around 16,000 people to trial, and cause an exodus of non-Christians from Goa;[33] by the end of the 17th century, less than 10% of the Goan population was non-Christians.[45]
The Portuguese fortress of Diu wasbesieged a second time in 1546 by a joint Ottoman-Gujurati army led byKhoja Zufar. After seven months of siege, the conflict resulted in a major Portuguese victory upon the arrival of a reinforcement fleet underJoão de Castro.[46]
In 1556, theprinting press in Goa was the first installed in India atSaint Paul's College, Goa byJoão de Bustamante. The press was used to disseminate religious literature, first in Portuguese and later in Tamil.[47][48][49] The development of European-style printing types that could print Indian scripts represented a significant moment in the history of printing in India.[50]
By the start of the 17th century, the population of Goa and the surrounding areas was about 250,000.[51] Holding this strategic land against repeated attacks by the Indian states required constant infusions of men and materiel from Portugal. Portugal's important victories, such as thebattle of Cochin in 1504,the defence of Diu in 1509, the conquest of Goa in 1510, the defences of Diu in 1538 and 1546, and thedefence of Goa in 1571 were accomplished with limitedmanpower. In their largest deployments, the Portuguese could field perhaps 2,000 to 3,000 European and mestiço troops supported by a similar amount of local auxiliaries, while the larger Indian states could field tens of thousands each. Portuguese superiority in military technology (especially in ships and artillery), training (especially in the skill of their gunners), and tactics, combined with the disunity of the Indian states opposing them, allowed them to keep their position and consistently win their wars.[52]
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Theseven islands of Bombay were presented to theEnglish Crown in 1661, as part of thedowry of Catherine Braganza toCharles II of England, who in turn leased the area to theEnglish East India Company.
In 1683, the Maratha Empireinvaded Portuguese settlements in the Konkan region. Following Maratha victories in theBattle of Vasai andSiege of Ponda, the Marathas would then besiege Goa. The conflict ended following the 1684 Treaty of Ponda.
Kollam (Quilon) was a prominent seaport and became a Portuguese settlement in 1519. They built a cemetery atTangasseri in Quilon city. After theDutch East India Company invasion, the Dutch also buried their dead there. The pirates of Tangasseri inhabited the cemetery before Europeans arrived. Remnants of this cemetery still exist today, very close toTangasseri Lighthouse andSt Thomas Fort, which are listed among theprotected monuments in theArchaeological Survey of India.[53][54][55][56]
Most of the Northern Province, composed ofTaana,Bassein (Vasai) and Chaul nearBritish Bombay was lost following anotherMahratta Invasion of Bassein in 1739.Goa, Daman and Diu as well asAnjediva, were retained because a fleet ofPortuguese Armadas arrived fromLisbon, bearing a newly appointed viceroy.
In 1752, Mozambique was detached from the State of India and henceforth ruled by its own governor.
In the aftermath of the battles and the losses, the Portuguese expanded the territory of Goa between 1763 and 1788, at the expense of the Dessais ofKudal, the Sondas, and theBhonslas/Mahrattas ofSilvassa, which became known as theNovas Conquistas.[57] By order of theMarquis de Pombal, theJesuits were expelled from Portugal's territories in 1759.[58] They were replaced by theOratorians, a nativeGoan Catholic religious order founded byChristian Brahmin andChristian Kshatriya converts; a college dedicated to thesecular education of the native elites was opened; and theGoan Inquisition was abolished.[58] Under the influence of Pombal, King José declared that native Christians were equal in standing with Europeans, while the ViceroyCount of Ega declared religious freedom and prohibited racial slander. For these reasons, "Pombal and his collaborators remain, to this day, much respected figures in Goa"[59]
In 1783, following an attack on the Portuguese ship Santana, the Marathashanded over control of the territories of Dadrá and Nagar Áveli. The Portuguese thenpurchased Dadrá in 1785. By 1818, the Portuguese were the undisputed rulers of Nagar Áveli after thedissolution of the Maratha Confederacy.
TheConspiracy of the Pintos, also known as the Pinto Revolt, was a rebellion against Portuguese rule in Goa in 1787.[60] The leaders of the plot were three prominent priests from the village ofCandolim in theconcelho ofBardez. They belonged to the nobleRoman Catholic Brahmin Pinto clan, hence the name of the rebellion.[61] This was the first anti-colonial revolt in India and one of the first by Catholic subjects in all European colonies.
Military intelligence about France's plan to occupy Goa caused the British Governor-general at Calcutta, theMarquis of Wellesley to send troops. Goa was briefly aBritish Protectorate from 1799 to 1813.[62] The Portuguese governor Francisco António da Veiga Cabral managed to retain control of civil institutions by formally appointing the British officer in charge of the occupation, Sir William Clarke, as commander of Portuguese troops in Goa under his authority.[63]
In 1843, the capital was moved toPanjim (Nova Goa or New Goa), when it officially became the administrative seat of theEstado, replacing the city of Velha Goa (Old Goa), although the viceroys had taken residence there already since 1 December 1759. In 1844, the Portuguese governor of India stopped administering the territories of Macão, Solór, and Timór. Only then was the territory of the State of India confined to the Indian subcontinent itself.
Portugal was neutral during the Second World War. As a result, at the outbreak of hostilities, Axis ships sought refuge in Goa rather than be sunk or captured by British forces. Three German merchant ships, theEhrenfels, theDrachenfels and theBraunfels, as well as an Italian ship, took refuge in the port ofMormugao. TheEhrenfels began transmitting Allied ship movements to theU-boats operating in the Indian Ocean, an action that was extremely damaging to Allied shipping.
TheRoyal Navy was unable to take any official action against these ships because of Goa's stated neutrality. Instead the Indian mission ofSpecial Operations Executive backed a covert raid using members from theCalcutta Light Horse, a part-time unit made up of civilians who were not eligible for normal war service. The Light Horse embarked on an ancient Calcutta riverboat, thePhoebe, and sailed around India to Goa, where they sank theEhrenfels. The British then sent an unencrypted radio message announcing it was going to seize the territory. This bluff made the other Axis crews scuttle their ships fearing they could be seized by British forces.
The raid was described in the bookBoarding Party byJames Leasor. Due to the potential political ramifications of the fact that the raiders had violated Portuguese neutrality, the raid remained secret until the book was published in 1978.[64] In 1980 the story was made into the film,The Sea Wolves, starringGregory Peck,David Niven andRoger Moore.
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On 24 July 1954 an organisation called "The United Front of Goans" took control of the enclave ofDadra.Nagar Haveli was seized byAzad Gomantak Dal on 2 August 1954.[65] The International Court of Justice at The Hague delivered animpasse verdict, regarding access to Dadra and Nagar Haveli by Portugal.[66]
From 1954, thesatyagrahis (peaceful protesters) against Portuguese rule, outsideGoa were violently suppressed through brute force.[67] Many internal revolts were quelled and leaders extrajudicially murdered or jailed. As a result, India broke off diplomatic relations with Portugal, closed its consulate-general inPanjim[68] and demanded that Portugal must close its delegation inNew Delhi.[69] India also imposed an economic embargo against the territories of Portuguese Goa.[70] The Indian Government adopted a diplomatic "wait and watch" approach from 1955 to 1961 with numerous representations to the PortugueseSalazar dictatorship, and made attempts to highlight the issue ofdecolonisation before the international community.[71]
To facilitate the transport of people and goods to and from the Indian enclaves, the Salazar dictatorship established an airline,Transportes Aéreos da Índia Portuguesa,[72] and airports at Goa, Daman and Diu.
In December 1961,India invaded the remaining Portuguese possessions.[73] Portuguese forces had been given orders to either defeat the invaders or die.[citation needed] The Governor of Portuguese India signed the Instrument of Surrender on 19 December 1961, thus ending 450 years of Portuguese rule in India.[74]
Free Dadra and Nagar Haveli existed as ade facto independent entity from its independence in 1954 until its merger with the Republic of India in 1961.[75]
Following the annexation ofDadra and Nagar Haveli,Goa, Daman and Diu became newterritories of the Indian Union. Maj GenK P Candeth was declared as military governor of Goa, Daman and Diu. Goa's first legislative elections were held in 1963.
In 1967 areferendum was conducted afteractivists led byJack Sequeira proposed it, where voters would decide whether to merge Goa into the Marathi-majority state ofMaharashtra, the pro-Konkani faction eventually won afterprotests against theMaharashtrawadi Gomantak Party, led byDayanand Bandodkar.[76] However full statehood was not conferred immediately, and it was only on 30 May 1987 that Goa became the 25th state of the Indian Union, with Dadra and Nagar Haveli,Daman andDiu districts were partitioned, and continue to be administered as theDaman, Diu and Silvassa territory.[77]
The most drastic changes in Portuguese India after 1961 were the introduction of democratic elections, as well as the replacement of Portuguese with English as the general language of government and education.[78] Following many years ofKonkani language agitation,Konkani in theDevanagari script finally became the official language of the union territory of Goa, Daman and Diu in 1987.[79] The Indians allowed certain Portuguese institutions to continue unchanged. Amongst these were the land ownership system of thecomunidades, where land was held by the community ofneighbourhoods was then leased out to individuals. Goans under the Indian Government left thePortuguese Civil Code of Goa and Daman unchanged, hence they remain as the only territories in India with a common civil code that does not depend on religion.[80]
The Citizenship Act of 1955 granted the Government of India the authority to define citizenship in the Indian Union. In exercise of its powers, the government passed theGoa, Daman and Diu (Citizenship) Order, 1962 on 28 March 1962 conferring Indian citizenship on all persons born on or before 20 December 1961 in Goa, Daman, and Diu.[81]
Portugal'sSalazar dictatorship did not recognise India's sovereignty over the annexed territories, and established a government-in-exile for the territories,[82] which continued to be represented in the Portuguese National Assembly.[83][full citation needed] After 1974'sCarnation Revolution, the new Portuguese government recognised Indian sovereignty over Goa, Daman and Diu,[84] and the two states restored diplomatic relations. Portugal automatically gives citizens of the former Portuguese-India its citizenship[85] and opened a consulate in Goa in 1994.[86]
From the establishment of Portuguese India in 1505 until its disestablishment in 1961, an official with the title of governor or viceroy served as its highest authority, usually for a three-year term, initially with authority over all Crown territories east of the Cape of Good Hope. The latter title was attributed as a high honour while the monarchy lasted, however their duties were the same as governors.[87] They were the highest military commanders as well as administrators, hence their authority fell on matters pertaining to the armed forces, diplomacy, trade, finance and personnel management.[88] Before they left Portugal, they were handed a written set of orders and objectives, calledregimento.[88] The viceroys often attempted to influence the nomination of political allies to key positions. However, the final say fell on the metropolis. Many were accompanied by their personal retinues, and these often included their sons to serve in important military positions, such was the case of the captain-major of the seas of India Dom Lourenço de Almeida, son the viceroyDom Francisco de Almeida. After Goa was conquered, governors and viceroys lived in thePalácio do Hidalcão, the native Indian palace built by the city's former sovereign, the Adil Khan.[88]
The most important administrative structure of the State was put in place in the 16th century; it included the high court (relação), the superintendency of finances (vedoria da fazenda) run by a Crown appointedvedor, financial accounts office (casa dos contos) and the military registry and supply office (casa da matrícula).[88]
The extremely scattered nature of Portuguese holdings however, meant that the State was highly decentralized, with great power being held by individual fortress captains, their captain-generals or town halls, far away from Goa.[89] Like the governors and viceroys, fortress captains served for three years, however their terms could be renovated.[89] Sancho de Vasconcelos, captain-major of Ambon served for 19 years.[89] In the most important captaincies, financial authority rested with thevedor (superintendent), while judicial authority was vested in anouvidor ("ombundsman").
The Church played an important role in the State. The Pope had granted the Kings of Portugal exclusive ecclesiastical rights to religious patronage (Padroado) in their overseas possessions. After 1513 Portuguese eastern holdings were part of the bishopric of Funchal seated in Madeira island. After 1557 Goa became the seat of an archbishop with subordinate bishops in Cochin and Malacca.[90] Further sees were later opened in Macau in 1576 and in Funai in 1588. Religious Orders of theAugustinians,Franciscans,Dominicans andJesuits established mission headquarters in Goa, giving the Catholic Church a very visible presence and influence in the capital of the State of India, for which it earned the nickname of "Rome of the East", a fact commented by many foreign travellers.[90]
In the most important settlements featured acâmara ("town hall"), with charters similar to equivalent cities in Portugal, and they played an important role in administration, as they were the only institution through which settlers could voice their opinions and make themselves heard.[91] They were responsible for local governance, could collect some municipal taxes and acted as a court of first instance.[91] They sometimes provided loans to Viceroys, though cooperation was often difficult.[91] Portuguese merchants often established by their own initiative acâmara in their non-Crown settlements, the most important case of which was theLeal Senado in Macau.
Aside from the Portuguese themselves, the State often also ruled over non-Portuguese, non-Christian peoples, and in these cases often the traditional native structures were left in place. When Afonso de Albuquerque captured Goa, the Hindu inhabitants were left in possession of their lands; the pre-Portuguese system of land-ownership and administration of village communes codified and the rights of Brahmin or Khsatria ganvkars (shareholders) recognized, and tax collection was left to the HinduTimoja and after him the long-standing Krishna Rao.[91] In Hormuz, Albuquerque left its native Muslim king as chief administrator under a protectorate.[91] As theCounter-Reformation gained momentum in Europe, Brahmins were excluded from the Portuguese administration during the tenure ofDom Constantino de Bragança, which resulted in a wave of conversions.[92]
Trade had been one of the primary motivations behind the Portuguese expansion overseas, and one of the main objectives behind the foundation of the State of India was to take over the Europe-Asia trade, up to that point conducted mainly through the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, redirecting it around Africa via the Cape Route. Trade was processed either by the Crown through royal agents (feitores) working from royal trade posts (feitorias) and maintained by the royal finances, or by independent merchants, either Portuguese or otherwise.
One of the main tasks of royal factors was to acquire spices to be shipped back to Europe. In 1503, the Portuguese unloaded at Lisbon 30,000 quintals of spices, more than what the Venetians introduced in the European market through Alexandria in Egypt.[93] The overwhelming bulk of commodities imported to Europe by the Portuguese consisted ofblack pepper, which after 1520 was declared an official Crown monopoly.[94] The Portuguese acquired most of their pepper in Kerala or Kanara in India. For most of the century, the Portuguese secured an overwhelming share of the pepper imports into Europe, supplying 75 per cent or more of Europes pepper.[95] The Crown declared a monopoly on their commodities, such as cloves, nutmeg, mace, cinnamon, ginger, silk, pearls and the export of gold and silver bullion from Portugal to Asia.
The Portuguese Crown instituted a number of officialcarreiras, literally meaning "runs", connecting Goa to major Portuguese and non-Portuguese harbours around the Indian and Pacific oceans once a year. Initially conducted through Crown vessels, after 1560, the Crown began leasing them to private contractors, and by the late 16th century they were the norm.[97] By 1580, the value of inter-Asian trade rights leases reached as high as two million cruzados - twice the value the Portuguese Crown earned from the Goa-Lisbon trade.[97]
Portugal regulated and rerouted the Indian Ocean trade by imposing a system of safe-passes calledcartaz.[98] It was imposed most effectively on the west coast of India.[98] The Portuguese Crown also collected high customs dues, most importantly at Goa, Hormuz, Malacca, Bassein and Diu, and in the 1580s it accounted for over 85% of the viceroys revenue.[98]
Independent Portuguese merchants got involved in the inter-Asian trade, and the backbone of informal Portuguese presence and trade in Asia was formed ofEurasian merchants, descending from Portuguese soldiers or merchants married to local wives.[99] Their main hub of activities was the capital of Goa, where the largest community ofcasados ("married men") was located at, about 2,000 families.[100] The core element of their trade was Gujarati cotton textiles, but they also dealt in Kerala pepper, cinnamon from Sri Lanka, Kanara rice, diamonds from southern India andlarins from Persia.[100] By 1520 they had penetrated almost every commercially relevant region in Asia aside from Japan (which was reached in the 1540s). Macau was founded by independent Portuguese traders. The Crown regulated their trade into a number of convoys for safety against pirates, the most important of which were those which transported textiles from Gujarat to Goa and rice from Kanara to Goa.[100] The second most important settlement of Portuguese merchants in India was Cochin, where 500casados with their families resided.[101] Diu had acasado population of about 200.[102]
Portuguese India Company was established in 1628, however with the Crown being its only major shareholder, it was liquidated five years later.[103] By that point, Portugal's share of pepper trade had fallen behind those of theDutch VOC and theEnglish EIC.[103]
Portuguese trade was greatly reduced bythe war with the Dutch VOC, with whom a peace treaty was signed in 1663. Inter-Indian Portuguese convoys continued, mainly with Gujarat,Porto Novo andMadras.[104] Indian cottons became the bedrock of exports from Portuguese India, while tobacco grown in Portuguese Brazil became the most important commodity exported across Asia via Portuguese India till the 19th century.[105] New Portuguese East India Companies established in 1669 and 1685 failed, largely due to disagreements between the Crown and the merchants over the nature of the enterprise and lack of confidence from investors.[100] By the 18th century, tobacco, bullion, firearms, consumer goods such as Madeira wine and books represented the most important items traded in Portuguese India, while exports back to Europe included silks, spices, porcelain, precious stones, Indian cottons and high quality lacquered furniture, a good proportion being unloaded at Bahia in Brazil.[100] Indian cottons were especially valuable in Mozambique, where an important community of Indians from Diu or Daman came to reside. Nevertheless, Goa effectively became a commercial satellite ofBritish Bombay. Many Indo-Portuguese merchants became deeply involved and prominent inFrench Pondicherry,Danish Tranquebar and especially British Madras, Calcutta and Bombay, Portuguese Jews being linked to the diamond trade in Madras.[106]
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The State was largely urban, since its reason of being was to provide well-protected havens from which trade and communication could be conducted, controlled and dominated, hence only Goa, Daman, Bassein, Chaul and Colombo had any meaningful hinterland and rural populations.[9] After the massacre of the Portuguese in theirfeitoria in Calicut in 1500, practically every possession of the State was fortified, sometimes massively, and for this reason it resembled as much a network of maritime communications as an enormous perimeter of fortresses.[107]
Portuguese India harboured a society that was officially Christian and European but influenced by the non-European setting into which it was inserted. At the top of the social pyramid were the European-born viceroys, officers, and clergymen, followed by the Portuguesecasados and their Eurasian descendants, who could be wealthy merchants or hold important positions in the localcâmara, and finally the native society. At their peak in 1600, the total number of Portuguesecasados across the State probably numbered about 5,500.[108] Manycasados followed a lifestyle that seemed to foreign visitors as remarkably relaxed and luxurious by European standards, some living in fine houses furnished in the Indian fashion with many servants, abundant and varied food that included a wide variety of fruits and poultry, consumed offMing porcelain. Goancasados often dressed in shirts and white trousers while their wives usually wore saris.[108]
Alongside fortresses, ecclesiastical buildings dominated the skyline of most Portuguese settlements, particularly in Goa, giving the city a distinctly European and Catholic flavour and a high profile to the Church.[108] About 600 clergymen were concentrated in Goa out of perhaps 1800 east of the Cape of Good Hope in 1630.[108] Nevertheless, the European and Christian Eurasian community in any Portuguese settlement of the State always constituted a minority, perhaps no more than 7% in the case of Goa, the rest being Hindus, Indian Christians, other Asians and Africans, free or slaves.[107]
For these reasons, the State was culturally hybrid, distant as it was from Europe, with the façades and interiors of churches blending Portuguese and Asian iconographic traditions, while the domestic culture was likewise a compromise between East and West, with furniture, dress and food often more Asian than Portuguese.[109]
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Earlypostal history of the colony is obscure, but regular mail is known to have been exchanged withLisbon from 1825 onwards. Portugal had a postal convention with Great Britain, so much mail was probably routed throughBombay and carried on Britishpackets. Portuguesepostmarks are known from 1854 when a post office was opened in Goa.
The last regular issue for Portuguese India was on 25 June 1960, for the 500th anniversary of the death of PrinceHenry the Navigator. Stamps of India were first used on 29 December 1961, although the old stamps were accepted until 5 January 1962. Portugal continued to issue stamps for the lost colony but none were offered for sale in the colony's post offices, so they are not considered valid stamps.
Dual franking was tolerated from 22 December 1961 until 4 January 1962. Colonial (Portuguese) postmarks were tolerated until May 1962.
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| ½Tanga (1903) | |
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| Obverse: Lettering "CARLOS I REI DE PORTUGAL MCMIII", portrait of KingCarlos I. | Reverse: Lettering "INDIA PORTUGUEZA ½ TANGA", coat of arms of Portuguese India. |
| 800,000 coins minted, bronze. Engraver Valancio Alves. | |
| 1Escudo (1959) | |
|---|---|
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| Obverse: Lettering "ESTADO·DA·INDIA", face value with Coat of arms of Portuguese India in the center. | Reverse: Lettering "REPÚBLICA · PORTUGUESA", year andCoat of arms of Portugal in the center. |
| 6,000,000 coins minted. This coin was from State of India. | |
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