Historically, many of the individualsciences, such asphysics andpsychology, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in thehistory of philosophy includeWestern,Arabic–Persian,Indian, andChinese philosophy. Western philosophy originated inAncient Greece and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason andrevelation. Indian philosophy combines thespiritual problem of how to reachenlightenment with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues about right social conduct, government, andself-cultivation.
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Conatus is, forBaruch Spinoza, where "each thing, as far as it lies in itself, strives to persevere in its being." In the philosophy ofBaruch Spinoza,conatus (/koʊˈneɪtəs/;wikt:conatus;Latin for "effort; endeavor; impulse, inclination, tendency; undertaking; striving") is an innate inclination of a thing to continue to exist and enhance itself. Thisthing may be mind, matter, or a combination of both, and is often associated with God's will in apantheist view of nature. Theconatus may refer to the instinctivewill to live of living organisms or to various metaphysical theories ofmotion andinertia. Today,conatus is rarely used in the technical sense, since classical mechanics uses concepts such asinertia andconservation of momentum that have superseded it. It has, however, been a notable influence on later thinkers such asArthur Schopenhauer andFriedrich Nietzsche. (Full article...)
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Confirmation bias (alsoconfirmatory bias,myside bias, orcongeniality bias) is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's priorbeliefs orvalues. People display this bias when they select information that supports their views, ignoring contrary information or when they interpret ambiguous evidence as supporting their existing attitudes. The effect is strongest for desired outcomes, foremotionally charged issues, and for deeply entrenched beliefs.
Biased search for information, biased interpretation of this information, and biased memory recall have been invoked to explain four specific effects:
attitude polarization (when a disagreement becomes more extreme even though the different parties are exposed to the same evidence)
belief perseverance (when beliefs persist after the evidence for them is shown to be false)
theirrationalprimacy effect (a greater reliance on information encountered early in a series)
illusory correlation (when people falsely perceive an association between two events or situations).
Born and raised inAlbany, New York, Hand majored in philosophy atHarvard College and graduated with honors fromHarvard Law School. After a relatively undistinguished career as a lawyer in Albany and New York City, he was appointed at the age of 37 as aManhattan federal district judge in 1909. The profession suited his detached and open-minded temperament, and his decisions soon won him a reputation for craftsmanship and authority. Between 1909 and 1914, under the influence ofHerbert Croly's social theories, Hand supportedNew Nationalism. He ran unsuccessfully as theProgressive Party's candidate forchief judge of theNew York Court of Appeals in 1913, but withdrew from active politics shortly afterwards. In 1924, PresidentCalvin Coolidge elevated Hand to the Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, which he went on to lead as the senior circuit judge (later retitled chief judge) from 1939 until his semi-retirement in 1951. Scholars have recognized the Second Circuit under Hand as one of the finest appeals courts in American history. Friends and admirers often lobbied for Hand's promotion to the Supreme Court, but circumstances and his political past conspired against his appointment. (Full article...)
Anarky is ananti hero appearing inAmerican comic books published byDC Comics. Co-created byAlan Grant andNorm Breyfogle, he first appeared inDetective Comics #608 (November 1989), as an adversary ofBatman. Anarky is introduced asLonnie Machin, achild prodigy with knowledge of radical philosophy and driven to overthrow governments to improve social conditions. Stories revolving around Anarky often focus on political and philosophical themes. The character, who is named after the philosophy ofanarchism, primarily espousesanti-statism and attackscapitalism; however, multiple social issues have been addressed through the character, includingenvironmentalism,antimilitarism, economic inequality, and political corruption. Inspired by multiple sources, early stories featuring the character often included homages to political and philosophical texts, and referenced anarchist philosophers and theorists. The inspiration for the creation of the character and its early development was based in Grant's personal interest inanti-authoritarian philosophy and politics. However, when Grant himself transitioned to the philosophy ofNeo-Tech developed byFrank R. Wallace, he shifted the focus of Anarky from a vehicle forsocial anarchism and thenlibertarian socialism, with an emphasis on wealth redistribution and critique of Capitalism, to themes ofindividualism and personal reflections on the nature ofconsciousness.
Originally intended to only be used in the debut story in which he appeared, Grant decided to continue using Anarky as a sporadically recurring character throughout the early 1990s, following positive reception by readers andDennis O'Neil. The character experienced a brief surge in media exposure during the late 1990s when Breyfogle convinced Grant to produce alimited series based on the character. The 1997spin-off series,Anarky, was received with positive reviews and sales, and later declared by Grant to be among his "career highlights".Batman: Anarky, atrade paperback collection of stories featuring the character, soon followed. This popular acclaim culminated, however, in a financially and critically unsuccessful ongoing solo series. The 1999Anarky series, for which even Grant has expressed his distaste, was quickly canceled after eight issues. (Full article...)
Wallace did extensive fieldwork, starting in theAmazon River basin. He then did fieldwork in theMalay Archipelago, where he identified the faunal divide now termed theWallace Line, which separates the Indonesian archipelago into two distinct parts: a western portion in which the animals are largely of Asian origin, and an eastern portion where the fauna reflectAustralasia. He was considered the 19th century's leading expert on the geographical distribution of animal species, and is sometimes called the "father ofbiogeography", or more specifically ofzoogeography. (Full article...)
Mary Wollstonecraft (/ˈwʊlstənkræft/,alsoUK:/-krɑːft/; 27 April 1759 – 10 September 1797) was an English writer and philosopher best known for her advocacy ofwomen's rights. Until the late twentieth century, Wollstonecraft's life, which encompassed several unconventional (at the time) personal relationships, received more attention than her writing. Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the foundingfeminist philosophers, and feminists often cite both her life and her works as important influences.
During her brief career she wrote novels, treatises, atravel narrative, a history of theFrench Revolution, aconduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known forA Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men but appeared to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines asocial order founded on reason. (Full article...)
Priestley is credited with his independent discovery ofoxygen by the thermal decomposition of mercuric oxide, having isolated it in 1774. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention ofcarbonated water, his writings onelectricity, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). Priestley's determination to defendphlogiston theory and to reject what would become thechemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community. (Full article...)
Bohr developed theBohr model of theatom, in which he proposed that energy levels ofelectrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around theatomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle ofcomplementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as awave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. (Full article...)
Title page from the first English edition of Part I
The Age of Reason; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology is a work by English and American political activistThomas Paine, arguing for the philosophical position ofdeism. It follows in the tradition of 18th-century British deism, and challenges institutionalized religion and the legitimacy of theBible. It was published in three parts in 1794, 1795, and 1807.
It was a best-seller in the United States, where it caused a deisticrevival. British audiences, fearing increasedpolitical radicalism as a result of theFrench Revolution, received it with more hostility.The Age of Reason presents common deistic arguments; for example, it highlights what Paine saw as corruption of theChristian Church and criticizes its efforts to acquire political power. Paine advocates reason in the place ofrevelation, leading him to rejectmiracles and to view the Bible as an ordinary piece of literature, rather than a divinely-inspired text. InThe Age of Reason, he promotesnatural religion and argues for the existence of a creator god. (Full article...)
Wollstonecraft'sphilosophical andgothic novel revolves around the story ofa woman imprisoned in an insane asylum by her husband. It focuses on the societal rather than the individual "wrongs of woman" and criticizes what Wollstonecraft viewed as thepatriarchal institution of marriage in eighteenth-century Britain and the legal system that protected it. However, the heroine's inability to relinquish her romantic fantasies also reveals women's collusion in their oppression through false and damagingsentimentalism. The novel pioneered the celebration offemale sexuality and cross-class identification between women. Such themes, coupled with the publication of Godwin's scandalousMemoirs of Wollstonecraft's life, made the novel unpopular at the time it was published. (Full article...)
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Political Animals and Animal Politics is a 2014edited collection published byPalgrave Macmillan and edited by thegreenpolitical theoristsMarcel Wissenburg andDavid Schlosberg. The work addresses the emergence of academicanimal ethics informed bypolitical philosophy as opposed tomoral philosophy. It was the first edited collection to be published on the topic, and the first book-length attempt to explore the breadth and boundaries of the literature. As well as a substantial introduction by the editors, it features ten sole-authored chapters split over three parts, respectively concerninginstitutional change for animals, the relationship between animal ethics andecologism, and real-world laws made for the benefit of animals. The book's contributors were Wissenburg, Schlosberg, Manuel Arias-Maldonado, Chad Flanders, Christie Smith, Clemens Driessen, Simon Otjes, Kurtis Boyer, Per-Anders Svärd, and Mihnea Tanasescu. The focus of their individual chapters varies, but recurring features include discussions ofhuman exceptionalism, exploration of ways that animal issues are or could be present in political discourse, and reflections on the relationship between theory and practice in politics.
It has been discussed in the context ofontology,existentialism, and skepticism; it has also been used in Christian religious education classes to initiate discussion about angels, science, and faith. (Full article...)
... that Chinese physicianYu Yan described theories likeyinyang and thefive phases as "simply all lies, absolutely not factual, and completely groundless"?
Auguste Comte (full nameIsidore Marie Auguste François Xavier Comte) (January 17 (recordedJanuary 19),1798 - September 5, 1857) was a French thinker who coined the termsociology. He is remembered for being the first to apply thescientific method to the social world.
One universallaw that Comte saw at work in all sciences he called the 'law of three phases'. It is by his statement of this law that he is best known in the English-speaking world; namely, that society has gone through three phases: Theological, Metaphysical, and Scientific. He also gave the name "Positive" to the last of these because of the polysemous connotations of the word.
Atheism is the state of disbelief or non-belief in the existence of a deity or deities. It is commonly defined as the positive denial oftheism (i.e., the assertion that deities do not exist), or the deliberate rejection of theism (i.e., the refusal to believe in the existence of deities). However, others—including most atheistic philosophers and groups—define atheism as the simple absence of belief in deities (cf. nontheism), thereby designating many agnostics, and people who have never heard of gods, such as the unchurched or newborn children, as atheists as well. In recent years, some atheists have adopted the terms strong and weak atheism to clarify whether they consider their stance one of positive belief that no gods exist (strong atheism), or of mere absence of belief that gods exist (weak atheism).
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Portrait ofSaint Augustine, the oldest proponent of the Divine command theory
Divine command theory (also known astheological voluntarism) is ameta-ethical theory which proposes that an action's status asmorallygood is equivalent to whether it is commanded byGod. The theory asserts that what is moral is determined by God's commands and that for a person to be moral he is to follow God's commands. Followers of both monotheistic and polytheistic religions in ancient and modern times have often accepted the importance of God's commands in establishing morality.
Numerous variants of the theory have been presented: historically, figures includingSaint Augustine,Duns Scotus,William of Ockham andSøren Kierkegaard have presented various versions of divine command theory; more recently,Robert Merrihew Adams has proposed a "modified divine command theory" based on theomnibenevolence of God in which morality is linked to human conceptions of right and wrong.Paul Copan has argued in favour of the theory from a Christian viewpoint, andLinda Trinkaus Zagzebski's divine motivation theory proposes that God's motivations, rather than commands, are the source of morality. (Full article...)
In its judgment, the ICJ adopted the ICTY's conclusion fromRadislav Krstić's conviction and concluded what happened in and aroundSrebrenica was done by members of theArmy of Republika Srpska (VRS) "with the specific intent to destroy in part the group of the Muslims of Bosnia and Herzegovina as such, which constitute acts of genocide committed". The two international courts have ruled differently only concerning direct responsibility for acts of genocide in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ICJ, in a proceeding of theBosnian genocide case that was brought by Bosnia and Herzegovina againstSerbia and Montenegro, has made rulings to the extent that Serbia was not directly responsible for the perpetration of genocide but was responsible under "customary international law" for violating the obligation to "prevent and punish the crime of genocide". Other international bodies, such as theEuropean Court of Human Rights and theUnited Nations General Assembly, have also passed resolutions acknowledging genocide occurred in Bosnia. German courts have made convictions based upon a more expansive interpretation of genocide than that used by international courts. (Full article...)
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Greek text of Origen's apologetic treatiseContra Celsum, which is considered to be the most important work of early Christian apologetics
Against Celsus (Ancient Greek:Κατὰ Κέλσου,Kata Kelsou;Latin:Contra Celsum), preserved entirely in Greek, is a majorapologetics work by theChurch FatherOrigen of Alexandria, written in around 248 AD, countering the writings ofCelsus, a pagan philosopher and controversialist who had written a scathing attack onChristianity in his treatiseThe TrueWord (Λόγος Ἀληθής,Logos Alēthēs). Among a variety of other charges, Celsus had denounced many Christian doctrines as irrational and criticized Christians themselves as uneducated, deluded, unpatriotic, close-minded towardsreason, and too accepting of sinners. He had accusedJesus of performinghis miracles usingblack magic rather than actual divine powers and ofplagiarizing his teachings fromPlato. Celsus had warned that Christianity itself was drawing people away fromtraditional religion and claimed that its growth would lead to a collapse of traditional, conservative values.
Origen wroteContra Celsum at the request of his patron, a wealthy Christian namedAmbrose, who insisted that a Christian needed to write a response to Celsus. In the treatise itself, which was aimed at an audience of people who were interested in Christianity but had not yet made the decision to convert, Origen responds to Celsus's arguments point-by-point from the perspective of aPlatonic philosopher. After having questioned Celsus's credibility, Origen goes on to respond to Celsus's criticism with regard to the role of faith in Christianity, the identity of Jesus Christ, the allegorical interpretation of the Bible, and the relation between Christianity and traditional Greek religion. (Full article...)
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Amid the rain, Dante and Virgil encounter Cerberus, as illustrated byStradanus
Thethird circle of hell is depicted inDante Alighieri'sInferno, the first part of the 14th-century poemDivine Comedy.Inferno tells the story of Dante's journey through a vision of theChristian hell ordered into nine circles corresponding to classifications of sin; the third circle represents the sin ofgluttony, where the souls of the gluttonous are punished in a realm of icy mud.
Within the third circle, Dante encounters a man namedCiacco, with whom he discusses the contemporary strife between theGuelphs and Ghibellines inFlorence; the circle is also inhabited by the three-headed houndCerberus, who torments sinners by rending them apart. (Full article...)
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The hand signal "OK" Diver communications are the methods used bydivers to communicate with each other or with surface members of the dive team. Inprofessional diving, diver communication is usually between a single working diver and thediving supervisor at the surface control point. This is considered important both for managing the diving work, and as a safety measure for monitoring the condition of the diver. The traditional method of communication was by line signals, but this has been superseded by voice communication, and line signals are now used in emergencies when voice communications have failed. Surface supplied divers often carry a closed circuit video camera on thehelmet which allows the surface team to see what the diver is doing and to be involved in inspection tasks. This can also be used to transmit hand signals to the surface if voice communications fails. Underwater slates may be used to write text messages which can be shown to other divers, and there are some dive computers which allow a limited number of pre-programmed text messages to be sent through-water to other divers or surface personnel with compatible equipment.
Communication between divers and between surface personnel and divers is imperfect at best, and non-existent at worst, as a consequence of the physical characteristics of water. This prevents divers from performing at their full potential. Voice communication is the most generally useful format underwater, as visual forms are more affected by visibility, and written communication and signing are relatively slow and restricted by diving equipment. (Full article...)
Childish and Thomson have issued several manifestos. The first one wasThe Stuckists, consisting of 20 points starting with "Stuckism is a quest forauthenticity".Remodernism, the other well-known manifesto of the movement, opposes the deconstruction and irony ofpostmodernism in favor of what Stuckists refer to as the "spirituality" of the artist. In another manifesto they define themselves asanti-anti-art which is againstanti-art and for what they consider conventional art. (Full article...)
The Renaissance's intellectual basis was founded in its version ofhumanism, derived from the concept of Romanhumanitas and the rediscovery ofclassical Greek philosophy, such as that ofProtagoras, who said that "man is the measure of all things". Although the invention ofmetal movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century, the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe: the first traces appear in Italy as early as the late 13th century, in particular with the writings ofDante and the paintings ofGiotto. (Full article...)
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Merit, demerit and its retributions at the level of the individual. Based on Spiro.
Merit (Sanskrit:puṇya;Pali:puñña) is a concept considered fundamental toBuddhist ethics. It is a beneficial and protective force which accumulates as a result of good deeds, acts, or thoughts.Merit-making is important to Buddhist practice: merit brings good and agreeable results, determines the quality of thenext life and contributes to a person's growth towardsenlightenment. In addition, merit is also shared with a deceased loved one, in order to help the deceased in their new existence. Despitemodernization, merit-making remains essential in traditional Buddhist countries and has had a significant impact on the rural economies in these countries.
Merit is connected with the notions ofpurity and goodness. Before Buddhism, merit was used with regard toancestor worship, but in Buddhism it gained a more general ethical meaning. Merit is a force that results from good deeds done; it is capable of attracting good circumstances in a person's life, as well as improving the person's mind and inner well-being. Moreover, it affects the next lives to come, as well asthe destination a person is reborn. The opposite of merit isdemerit (pāpa), and it is believed that merit is able to weaken demerit. Indeed, merit has even been connected to the path toNirvana itself, but many scholars say that this refers only to some types of merit. (Full article...)
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America's 60 Families is a book by American journalistFerdinand Lundberg published in 1937 by Vanguard Press. It is an argumentative analysis of wealth and class in the United States, and how they are leveraged for purposes of political andeconomic power, specifically by what the author contends is a "plutocratic circle" composed of a tightly interlinked group of 60families.
The controversial study has met with mixed reactions since its publication. Though praised by some contemporary and modern reviewers, and once cited in a speech byHarold L. Ickes, it has also been criticized by others and was the subject of a 1938libel suit byDuPont over factual inaccuracies contained in the text. In 1968 Lundberg publishedThe Rich and the Super-Rich, described by some sources as a sequel toAmerica's 60 Families. (Full article...)
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Feminism is a range of socio-political movements andideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and socialequality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that modern societies arepatriarchal—they prioritize the male point of view—and that women are treated unjustly in these societies. Efforts to change this include fighting againstgender stereotypes and improving educational, professional, and interpersonal opportunities and outcomes for women.
Relief representingahimsa InJainism,ahiṃsā (Ahimsā, alternatively spelled 'ahinsā',Sanskrit: अहिंसाIAST:ahinsā,Pāli:avihinsā) is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of itsethics and doctrine. The termahiṃsā meansnonviolence, non-injury, and absence of desire to harm any life forms.Veganism,vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahimsa. There are five specific transgressions of Ahimsa principle in Jain scriptures – binding of animals, beating, mutilating limbs, overloading, and withholding food and drink. Any other interpretation is subject to individual choices and not authorized by scriptures.
The Jain concept ofahimsa is very different from the concept of nonviolence found in other philosophies. Violence is usually associated with causing harm to others. But according to theJain philosophy, violence refers primarily to injuring one's own self – behaviour which inhibits the soul's own ability to attainmoksha (liberation from the cycle of births and deaths). At the same time it also implies violence to others because it is this tendency to harm others that ultimately harms one's own soul. Furthermore, the Jains extend the concept of ahimsa not only to humans but to all animals, plants, micro-organisms and all beings having life or life potential. All life is sacred and everything has a right to live fearlessly to its maximum potential. Living beings need not fear those who have taken the vow ofahimsa. According to Jainism, protection of life, also known asabhayadānam, is the supreme charity that a person can make. (Full article...)
Hadley is known for his account of animalproperty rights theory. He proposes that wild animals be offered property rights over theirterritories, and that guardians be appointed to represent their interests in decision-making procedures. He suggests that this account could be justified directly, on the basis of the interests of the animals concerned, or indirectly, so that natural environments are protected. The theory has received discussion in popular and academic contexts, with critical responses from farming groups and mixed responses from moral and political theorists. (Full article...)
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A sculpture in Durga temple inAihole depictsVishnu in a boar (Varaha) avatar rescuesBhudevi (earth)
The text has five chapters, structured primarily as a discussion betweenVishnu in hisVaraha (boar) avatar and the sage Ribhu. The discussion covers the subjects ofTattvas, the nature and relationship between the individual soul (Self,Atman) and the Ultimate Reality (Brahman), the seven stages of learning, the characteristics ofJivanmukti (inner sense of freedom while living), and the four types ofJivanmuktas (liberated persons). The last chapter of the text is dedicated to Yoga, its goals and methods. (Full article...)
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Mahadevi or Durga
TheDevi Upanishad (Sanskrit:देवी उपनिषत्), is one of the minorUpanishads ofHinduism and a text composed inSanskrit. It is one of the 19 Upanishads attached to theAtharvaveda, and is classified as one of the eightShakta Upanishads. It is, as an Upanishad, a part of the corpus ofVedanta literature collection that present the philosophical concepts of Hinduism.
The text was likely composed between 9th- to 14th-centuries CE. It refers toMahadevi as representing all goddesses. The Devi Upanishad is part of the fiveAtharvashiras Upanishads important toTantra and Shakta philosophy traditions. (Full article...)
Image 2The BuddhistNalanda university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200. (fromEastern philosophy)
(upper)PIRRHO • HELIENSIS • PLISTARCHI • FILIVS translation (from Latin): Pyrrho • Greek • Son of Plistarchus
(middle)OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM HANC ILLIVS IMITARI SECVRITATEMtranslation (from Latin): It is right wisdom then that all imitate this security (Pyrrho pointing at a peaceful pig munching his food)
(lower)Whoever wants to apply the real wisdom, shall not mindtrepidation and misery
Image 5The center third ofEducation (1890), a stained glass window byLouis Comfort Tiffany and Tiffany Studios, located in Linsly-Chittenden Hall atYale University. It depictsScience (personified by Devotion, Labor, Truth, Research and Intuition) andReligion (personified by Purity, Faith, Hope, Reverence and Inspiration) in harmony, presided over by the central personification of "Light·Love·Life".
Image 8Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian and playwright.
Image 9Oscar Wilde reclining withPoems, byNapoleon Sarony, in New York in 1882. Wilde often liked to appear idle, though in fact he worked hard; by the late 1880s he was a father, an editor, and a writer.
Philosophy ponders the most fundamental questions humankind has been able to ask. These are increasingly numerous and over time they have been arranged into the overlappingbranches of the philosophy tree:
Aesthetics: What is art? What is beauty? Is there a standard of taste? Is art meaningful? If so, what does it mean? What is good art? Is art for the purpose of an end, or is "art for art's sake?" What connects us to art? How does art affect us? Is some art unethical? Can art corrupt or elevate societies?
Epistemology: What are the nature and limits of knowledge? What is more fundamental to human existence, knowing (epistemology) or being (ontology)? How do we come to know what we know? What are the limits and scope of knowledge? How can we know that there are other minds (if we can)? How can we know that there is an external world (if we can)? How can we prove our answers? What is a true statement?
Ethics: Is there a difference between ethically right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference? Which actions are right, and which wrong? Do divine commands make right acts right, or is their rightness based on something else? Are there standards of rightness that are absolute, or are all such standards relative to particular cultures? How should I live? What is happiness?
Logic: What makes a good argument? How can I think critically about complicated arguments? What makes for good thinking? When can I say that something just does not make sense? Where is the origin of logic?
Metaphysics: What sorts of things exist? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the relationship of the mind to the body? What is it to be a person? What is it to be conscious? Do gods exist?
Political philosophy: Are political institutions and their exercise of power justified? What is justice? Is there a 'proper' role and scope of government? Is democracy the best form of governance? Is governance ethically justifiable? Should a state be allowed? Should a state be able to promote the norms and values of a certain moral or religious doctrine? Are states allowed to go to war? Do states have duties against inhabitants of other states?
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![Image 15Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.](/mt/?noimg=&dark=on&url=https%3a%2f%2fen.wikipedia.org%2fwiki%2fFile%3aKirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png)
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