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  TheNea Ekklēsia (Medieval Greek:Νέα Ἐκκλησία, "New Church"; known in English as "The Nea") was achurch byByzantine EmperorBasil I the Macedonian inConstantinople between 876 and 880. It was the first monumental church built in theByzantine capital after theHagia Sophia in the 6th century, and marks the beginning of the middle period ofByzantine architecture. It continued in use until thePalaiologan period. Used as a gunpowder magazine by theOttomans, the building was destroyed in 1490 after being struck by lightning. No traces of it survive, and information about it derives from historical accounts and depictions. (Full article...)
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  Mount Athos is a mountain on theAthos peninsula in northeasternGreece directly on the Aegean Sea. It is an important center ofEastern Orthodoxmonasticism.
  
  The mountain and most of the Athos peninsula are governed as anautonomous region in Greece by themonastic community of Mount Athos, which is ecclesiastically under the direct jurisdiction of theEcumenical Patriarch of Constantinople. The remainder of the peninsula forms part of theAristotelis municipality. By Greek law and by religious tradition, women are prohibited from entering the area governed by the monastic community. (Full article...)
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  TheByzantine Empire was ruled by theIsaurian dynasty (orSyrian dynasty) from 717 to 802. The Isaurianemperors were successful in defending and consolidating the empire against thecaliphates after the onslaught of theearly Muslim conquests, but were less successful in Europe, where they suffered setbacks against theBulgars, had to give up theExarchate of Ravenna, and lost influence over Italy and thepapacy to the growing power of theFranks.
  
  The Isaurian dynasty is chiefly associated withByzantine iconoclasm, an attempt to restore divine favour by purifying the Christian faith from excessive adoration oficons, which resulted in considerable internal turmoil. (Full article...)
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  Thewalls of Constantinople (Turkish:Konstantinopolis Surları;Greek:Τείχη της Κωνσταντινούπολης) are a series ofdefensive stone walls that have surrounded and protected the city ofConstantinople (modernFatih district ofIstanbul) since its founding as the new capital of theRoman Empire byConstantine the Great. With numerous additions and modifications during their history, they were the last greatfortification system ofantiquity, and one of the most complex and elaborate systems ever built.
  
  Initially built by Constantine the Great, the walls surrounded the new city on all sides, protecting it against attack from both sea and land. As the city grew, the famous double line of theTheodosian walls was built in the 5th century. Although the other sections of the walls were less elaborate, they were, when well-manned, almost impregnable for any medieval besieger. They saved the city, and theByzantine Empire with it, duringsieges by theAvar–Sassanian coalition,Arabs,Rus', andBulgars, among others. The fortifications retained their usefulness even after the advent ofgunpowder siege cannons, which played a part inthe city's fall toOttoman forces in 1453 but were not able to breach its walls. (Full article...)
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  Nea Moni (Greek:Νέα Μονή,lit. 'New Monastery') is an 11th-century monastery on the island ofChios that has been recognized as aUNESCO World Heritage Site. It is located on the Provateio Oros Mt. in the island's interior, about 15 km fromChios town. It is well known for itsmosaics, which, together with those atDaphni andHosios Loukas, are among the finest examples of"Macedonian Renaissance" art in Greece. (Full article...)
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  TheByzantine economy was among the most robust economies in the Mediterranean and the world for many centuries.Constantinople was a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all ofEurasia and North Africa. It could be argued that, up until the 7th century, theEastern Roman Empire had the most powerful economy in the world. The Arab conquests, however, would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of decline and stagnation.Constantine V's reforms (c. 765) marked the beginning of a revival that continued until 1204. From the 10th century until the end of the 12th, the Byzantine Empire projected an image of luxury, and travelers were impressed by the wealth accumulated in the capital. All this changed with the arrival of theFourth Crusade, which was an economic catastrophe. ThePalaiologoi tried to revive the economy, but the late Byzantine state would not gain full control of either the foreign or domestic economic forces.
  
  One of the economic foundations of the empire was trade. The state strictly controlled both the internal and the international trade, and retained the monopoly of issuingcoinage. Constantinople remained the single most important commercial centre of Europe for much of theMedieval era, which it held until theRepublic of Venice slowly began to overtake Byzantine merchants in trade; first through tax exemption under theKomnenoi, then under theLatin Empire. (Full article...)
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  Hagia Sophia, officially theHagia Sophia Grand Mosque, is achurch serving as a major cultural and historical site inIstanbul,Turkey. It was formerly achurch (360–1453) and amuseum (1935–2020). The last of three church buildings to be successively erected on the site by theEastern Roman Empire, it was completed in AD 537, becoming the world's largest interior space and amongthe first to employ a fullypendentive dome. It is considered the epitome ofByzantine architecture and is said to have "changed the history of architecture". From its dedication in  360 until 1453 Hagia Sophia served as thecathedral ofConstantinople in theByzantine liturgical tradition, except for the period 1204–1261 when theLatin Crusaders installed their ownhierarchy. After thefall of Constantinople in 1453, it served as a mosque, having itsminarets added soon after. The site became a museum in 1935, and was redesignated as a mosque in 2020.
  
  The current structure was built by theByzantine emperorJustinian I as the Christian cathedral of Constantinople between 532–537 and was designed by the GreekgeometersIsidore of Miletus andAnthemius of Tralles. It was formally called theTemple of God's Holy Wisdom, (Greek:Ναὸς τῆς Ἁγίας τοῦ Θεοῦ Σοφίας,romanized: Naòs tês Hagías toû Theoû Sophías) the third church of the same name to occupy the site, as the prior one had been destroyed in theNika riots. As theepiscopal see of theecumenical patriarch of Constantinople, the current Hagia Sophia (532–537) built byJustinian I remained theworld's largest cathedral for nine centuries, until the completion of theFlorence Cathedral in 1436. (Full article...)
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  Byzantine medicine encompasses the commonmedical practices of theByzantine Empire from c. 400 AD to 1453 AD. Byzantine medicine was notable for building upon the knowledge base developed by its Greco-Roman predecessors. In preserving medical practices from antiquity, Byzantine medicine influencedIslamic medicine and fostered the Western rebirth of medicine during theRenaissance. The concept of the hospital appeared in Byzantine Empire as an institution to offer medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients because of the ideals ofChristian charity.
  
  Byzantine physicians often compiled and standardized medical knowledge intotextbooks. Their records tended to include both diagnostic explanations and technical drawings. TheMedical Compendium in Seven Books, written by the leading physicianPaul of Aegina, survived as a particularly thorough source of medical knowledge. This compendium, written in the late seventh century, remained in use as a standard textbook for the following 800 years. This tradition of compilation continued from around the tenth century into the twentieth through the genre of medical writings known asiatrosophia. (Full article...)
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  The Empire of Trebizond or theTrapezuntine Empire was one of the three successorrump states of theByzantine Empire that existed during the 13th through to the 15th century. The empire consisted of thePontus, or far northeastern corner ofAnatolia, and portions ofsouthern Crimea.
  
  The Trapezuntine Empire was formed in 1204 with the help ofQueen Tamar of Georgia after the Georgian expedition inChaldia andPaphlagonia, which was commanded byAlexios Komnenos a few weeks before theSack of Constantinople. Alexios later declared himselfemperor and established himself in Trebizond (nowTrabzon in Turkey). (Full article...)
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  Byzantine law was essentially a continuation ofRoman law with increasedOrthodox Christian andHellenistic influence. Most sources defineByzantine law as the Roman legal traditions starting after the reign ofJustinian I in the 6th century and ending with theFall of Constantinople in the 15th century. Although future Byzantine codes and constitutions derived largely from Justinian'sCorpus Juris Civilis, their main objectives were idealistic and ceremonial rather than practical. FollowingHellenistic andNear-Eastern political systems, legislations were tools to idealize and display the sacred role and responsibility of the emperor as the holy monarch chosen by God and the incarnation of law "nómos émpsychos", thus having philosophical and religious purposes that idealized perfect Byzantine kingship.
  
  Though during and after theEuropean Renaissance Western legal practices were heavily influenced byJustinian's Code (theCorpus Juris Civilis) and Roman law during classical times, Byzantine law nevertheless had substantial influence on Western traditions during theMiddle Ages and after. (Full article...)
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  TheDespotate of Epirus (Medieval Greek:Δεσποτᾶτον τῆς Ἠπείρου) was one of the Greekrump states of theByzantine Empire established in the aftermath of theFourth Crusade in 1204 by a branch of theAngelos dynasty. It claimed to be the legitimate successor of the Byzantine Empire during the subsequentstruggle for Constantinople, along with theEmpire of Nicaea and theEmpire of Trebizond; its rulers briefly proclaiming themselves as Emperors in 1227–1242 (during which it is most often called theEmpire of Thessalonica). The term "Despotate of Epirus" is, like "Byzantine Empire" itself, a modernhistoriographic convention and not a name in use at the time.
  
  The Despotate was centred on the region ofEpirus, encompassing alsoAlbania and the western portion ofGreek Macedonia and also includedThessaly and western Greece as far south asNafpaktos. Through a policy of aggressive expansion underTheodore Komnenos Doukas the Despotate of Epirus also briefly came to incorporate centralMacedonia, with the establishment of theEmpire of Thessalonica in 1224, andThrace as far east asDidymoteicho andAdrianople, and was on the verge of recapturing Constantinople and restoring the Byzantine Empire before theBattle of Klokotnitsa in 1230 where he was defeated by theBulgarian Empire. After that, the Epirote state contracted to its core in Epirus and Thessaly, and was forced into vassalage to other regional powers. It nevertheless managed to retain its autonomy until being conquered by the restoredPalaiologanByzantine Empire in ca. 1337. In the 1410s,Carlo I Tocco,Count Palatine of Cephalonia and Zakynthos, managed to reunite the core of the Epirote state, but his successors gradually lost it to the advancingOttoman Empire, with the last stronghold,Vonitsa, falling to the Ottomans in 1479. (Full article...)
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  The ArabMuslim conquest ofSicily began in June 827 and lasted until 902, when the last majorByzantine stronghold on the island,Taormina, fell. Isolated fortresses remained in Byzantine hands until 965, but the island was henceforth under Arab Muslim rule untilconquered in turn by theNormans in the 11th century.
  
  Although Sicily had been raided by the Muslim Arabs since the mid-7th century, these raids did not threatenByzantine control over the island, which remained a largely peaceful backwater. The opportunity for theAghlabid emirs ofIfriqiya (present-dayTunisia) came in 827, when the commander of the island's fleet,Euphemius, rose in revolt against theByzantine EmperorMichael II. Defeated by loyalist forces and driven from the island, Euphemius sought the aid of the Aghlabids, an Arab dynasty. The latter regarded this as an opportunity for expansion and for diverting the energies of their own fractious military establishment and alleviating the criticism of the Islamic scholars by championingjihad, and dispatched an army to aid him. Following the Arab landing on the island, Euphemius was quickly sidelined. An initial assault on the island's capital,Syracuse, failed, but the Muslims were able to weather the subsequent Byzantine counter-attack and hold on to a few fortresses. With the aid of reinforcements from Ifriqiya and Umayyadal-Andalus, in 831 they tookPalermo, which became the capital of the new Arab-Muslim province. (Full article...)
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  Byzantine currency, money used in theEastern Roman Empire after the fall of the West, consisted of mainly two types ofcoins:goldsolidi andhyperpyra and a variety of clearly valuedbronze coins. By the 15th century, the currency was issued only in debased silverstavrata and minor copper coins with no gold issue. TheByzantine Empire established and operated severalmints throughout its history. Aside from the main metropolitan mint in the capital,Constantinople, a varying number of provincial mints were also established in other urban centres, especially during the 6th century.
  
  Most provincial mints except forSyracuse were closed or lost toArab Muslim invasions in theMediterranean Region by the mid-7th century onwards. After the loss of Syracuse in 878, Constantinople became the sole mint forgold andsilver coinage until the late 11th century, when major provincial mints began to re-appear. Many mints, both imperial and,as the Byzantine Empire fragmented, belonging to autonomous local rulers, were operated in the 12th to 14th centuries. Constantinople andTrebizond, capital of the independentEmpire of Trebizond (1204–1461), survived until theinvasion of Anatolia by theOttoman Turks in the mid-15th century. (Full article...)
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  TheByzantine Iconoclasm (Ancient Greek:Εἰκονομαχία,romanized: Eikonomachía,lit. 'image struggle', 'war on icons') are two periods in the history of theByzantine Empire when the use ofreligious images oricons was opposed by religious and imperial authorities within theEcumenical Patriarchate (at the time still comprising the Roman-Latin and the Eastern-Orthodox traditions) and the temporal imperial hierarchy. TheFirst Iconoclasm, as it is sometimes called, occurred between about 726 and 787, while theSecond Iconoclasm occurred between 814 and 842. According to the traditional view, Byzantine Iconoclasm was started by a ban on religious images promulgated by the Byzantine EmperorLeo III the Isaurian, and continued under his successors. It was accompanied by widespread destruction of religious images and persecution of supporters of the veneration of images. ThePapacy remained firmly in support of the use of religious images throughout the period, and the whole episode widened thegrowing divergence between the Byzantine andCarolingian traditions in what was still a unified European Church, as well as facilitating the reduction or removal of Byzantine political control overparts of the Italian Peninsula.
  
  Iconoclasm is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious images and other symbols or monuments, usually for religious or political motives. People who engage in or support iconoclasm are callediconoclasts, Greek for 'breakers of icons' (εἰκονοκλάσται), a term that has come to be applied figuratively to any person who breaks or disdains establisheddogmata or conventions. Conversely, people who revere or venerate religious images are derisively called "iconolaters" (εἰκονολάτρες). They are normally known as "iconodules" (εἰκονόδουλοι), or "iconophiles" (εἰκονόφιλοι). These terms were, however, not a part of the Byzantine debate over images. They have been brought into common usage by modern historians (from the seventeenth century) and their application to Byzantium increased considerably in the late twentieth century. The Byzantine term for the debate over religious imagery,iconomachy, means "struggle over images" or "image struggle". Some sources also say that the Iconoclasts were against intercession to the saints and denied the usage of relics; however, it is disputed. (Full article...)
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  TheByzantine Empireunder the Macedonian dynasty underwent a revival during the late 9th, 10th, and early 11th centuries. Under theMacedonian emperors, the empire gained control over theAdriatic Sea,Southern Italy, and all of the territory of theTsarSamuil of Bulgaria. The Macedonian dynasty was characterised by a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts, and has been dubbed the "Golden Age" ofByzantium.
  
  The cities of the empire expanded, and affluence spread across the provinces because of the newfound security. The population rose, and production increased, stimulating new demand fortrade. (Full article...)
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  Constantinople was besieged by the Arabs in 674–678, in what was the first culmination of theUmayyad Caliphate's expansionist strategy against theByzantine Empire. CaliphMu'awiya I, who had emerged in 661 as the ruler of the Muslim Arab empire following acivil war, renewedaggressive warfare against Byzantium after a lapse of some years and hoped to deliver a lethal blow by capturing the Byzantine capital of Constantinople.
  
  As reported by the Byzantine chroniclerTheophanes the Confessor, the Arab attack was methodical: in 672–673 Arab fleets secured bases along the coasts ofAsia Minor and then installed a loose blockade around Constantinople. They used the peninsula ofCyzicus near the city as a base to spend the winter and returned every spring to launch attacks against thecity's fortifications. Finally the Byzantines, under EmperorConstantine IV, destroyed the Arab navy using a new invention, the liquid incendiary substance known asGreek fire. The Byzantines also defeated the Arab land army in Asia Minor, forcing them to lift the siege. The Byzantine victory was of major importance for the survival of the Byzantine state, as the Arab threat receded for a time. A peace treaty was signed soon after, and following the outbreak ofanother Muslim civil war, the Byzantines even experienced a brief period of ascendancy over the Caliphate. The siege was arguably the first major Arab defeat in 50 years of expansion and temporarily stabilized the Byzantine Empire after decades of war and defeats. (Full article...)
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  In 717–718,Constantinople, the capital of theByzantine Empire, was besieged by the Muslim Arabs of theUmayyad Caliphate. The campaign marked the culmination of twenty years of attacks and progressive Arab occupation of the Byzantine borderlands, while Byzantine strength was sapped byprolonged internal turmoil. In 716, after years of preparations, the Arabs, led byMaslama ibn Abd al-Malik, invaded ByzantineAsia Minor. The Arabs initially hoped to exploit Byzantine civil strife and made common cause with the generalLeo III the Isaurian, who had risen up against EmperorTheodosius III. Leo, however, deceived them and secured the Byzantine throne for himself.
  
  After wintering in the western coastlands of Asia Minor, the Arab army crossed intoThrace in the early summer of 717 and builtsiege lines to blockade the city, which was protected by the massiveTheodosian Walls. The Arab fleet, which accompanied the land army and was meant to complete the city's blockade by sea, was partly neutralized soon after its arrival by theByzantine navy through the use ofGreek fire. This allowed Constantinople to be resupplied by sea, while the Arab army was crippled byfamine anddisease during the unusually hard winter that followed. In spring 718, two Arab fleets sent as reinforcements were destroyed by the Byzantines after their Christian crews defected, and an additional army sent overland through Asia Minor was ambushed and defeated. Coupled with attacks by theBulgars on their rear, the Arabs were forced to lift the siege on 15 August 718. On its return journey, the Arab fleet was almost completely destroyed by natural disasters. (Full article...)
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  TheEast–West Schism, also known as theGreat Schism or theSchism of 1054, is the break ofcommunion between theCatholic Church and theEastern Orthodox Church since 1054. A series ofecclesiastical differences,theological disputes and geopolitical tensions between theGreek East and Latin West preceded the formal split that occurred in 1054. Prominent among these were theprocession of the Holy Spirit (Filioque), whetherleavened orunleavened bread should be used in theEucharist,iconoclasm, the coronation ofCharlemagne asemperor of the Romans in 800, thepope's claim touniversal jurisdiction, and the place of theSee of Constantinople in relation to thepentarchy.
  
  The first action that led to a formal schism occurred in 1053 when PatriarchMichael I Cerularius of Constantinople ordered the closure of all Latin churches inConstantinople. In 1054, thepapal legate sent byLeo IX travelled to Constantinople in order, among other things, to deny Cerularius the title of "ecumenical patriarch" and insist that he recognize the pope's claim to be the head of all of the churches. The main purposes of the papal legation were to seek help from theByzantine emperor,Constantine IX Monomachos, in view of theNorman conquest of southern Italy, and to respond toLeo of Ohrid's attacks on the use of unleavened bread and other Western customs, attacks that had the support of Cerularius. The historian Axel Bayer says that the legation was sent in response to two letters, one from the emperor seeking help to organize a joint military campaign by theeastern andwestern empires against theNormans, and the other from Cerularius. When the leader of the legation, CardinalHumbert of Silva Candida,O.S.B., learned that Cerularius had refused to accept the demand, heexcommunicated him, and in response Cerularius excommunicated Humbert and the other legates. According toKallistos Ware, "Even after 1054 friendly relations between East and West continued. The two parts of Christendom were not yet conscious of a great gulf of separation between them ... The dispute remained something of which ordinary Christians in East and West were largely unaware". (Full article...)
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  Byzantine music (Greek:Βυζαντινή μουσική,romanized: Vyzantini mousiki) originally consisted of the songs andhymns composed for the courtly and religious ceremonial of theByzantine Empire and continued, after thefall of Constantinople in 1453, in the traditions of the sungByzantine chant ofEastern Orthodox liturgy. The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music are the best known forms today, because different Orthodox traditions still identify with the heritage of Byzantine music, when theircantors sing monodic chant out of the traditional chant books such as theSticherarion, which in fact consisted of five books, and theIrmologion.
  
  Byzantine music did not disappear after thefall of Constantinople. Its traditions continued under thePatriarch of Constantinople, who after the Ottoman conquest in 1453 was grantedadministrative responsibilities over allEastern Orthodox Christians in theOttoman Empire. During the decline of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century, burgeoning splinter nations in the Balkans declaredautonomy orautocephaly from the Patriarchate of Constantinople. The new self-declared patriarchates were independent nations defined by their religion. (Full article...)
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  TheArab–Byzantine wars orMuslim–Byzantine wars were a series of wars from the 7th to 11th centuries between multipleArab dynasties and theByzantine Empire. TheMuslim ArabCaliphates conquered large parts of theChristian Byzantine empire and unsuccessfully attacked the Byzantine capital ofConstantinople. The frontier between the warring states remained almost static for three centuries of frequent warfare, before the Byzantines were able to recapture some of the lost territory.
  
  The conflicts began during theearly Muslim conquests under the expansionistRashidun Caliphate, part of the initialspread of Islam. In the 630s, Rashidun forces fromArabia attacked and quickly overran Byzantium's southern provinces.Syria was captured in 639 andEgypt was conquered in 642. TheExarchate of Africa wasgradually captured between 647 and 670. From the 650s onwards, Arab navies entered theMediterranean Sea, which became a major battleground. Both sides launched raids and counter-raids against islands and coastal settlements. The Rashiduns were succeeded by theUmayyad Caliphate in 661, who over the next fifty years captured ByzantineCyrenaica and launched repeated raids into ByzantineAsia Minor. Umayyad forces twice placed Constantinople under siege, in674 to 678 and717 to 718, but failed to seize the heavily fortified Byzantine capital. (Full article...)
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  TheByzantine civil war of 1341–1347, sometimes referred to as theSecond Palaiologan Civil War, was a conflict that broke out in theByzantine Empire after the death ofAndronikos III Palaiologos over the guardianship of his nine-year-old son and heir,John V Palaiologos. It pitted on the one hand Andronikos III's chief minister,John VI Kantakouzenos, and on the other aregency headed by the Empress-DowagerAnna of Savoy, thePatriarch of ConstantinopleJohn XIV Kalekas, and themegas douxAlexios Apokaukos. The war polarized Byzantine society along class lines, with the aristocracy backing Kantakouzenos and the lower andmiddle classes supporting the regency. To a lesser extent, the conflict acquired religious overtones; Byzantium was embroiled in theHesychast controversy, and adherence to themystical doctrine ofHesychasm was often equated with support for Kantakouzenos.
  
  As the chief aide and closest friend of Emperor Andronikos III, Kantakouzenos became regent for the underage John V upon Andronikos's death in June 1341. While Kantakouzenos was absent fromConstantinople in September the same year, acoup d'état led by Alexios Apokaukos and the Patriarch John XIV secured the support of Empress Anna and established a new regency. In response, Kantakouzenos' army and supporters proclaimed him co-emperor in October, cementing the rift between himself and the new regency. The split immediately escalated into armed conflict. (Full article...)
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  TheEmpire of Thessalonica is ahistoriographic term used by some modern scholars to refer to the short-livedByzantine Greek state centred on the city ofThessalonica between 1224 and 1246 (sensu stricto until 1242) and ruled by theKomnenodoukas dynasty ofEpirus. At the time of its establishment during thestruggle for Constantinople, the Empire of Thessalonica, under the capableTheodore Komnenos Doukas, rivaled theEmpire of Nicaea and theSecond Bulgarian Empire as the strongest state in the region, and aspired to capturingConstantinople, putting an end to theLatin Empire, and restoring theByzantine Empire that had been extinguished in 1204.
  
  Thessalonica's ascendancy was brief, ending with the disastrousBattle of Klokotnitsa against Bulgaria in 1230, where Theodore Komnenos Doukas was captured. Reduced to a Bulgarian vassal, Theodore's brother and successorManuel Komnenos Doukas was unable to prevent the loss of most of his brother's conquests inMacedonia andThrace, while the original nucleus of the state, Epirus, broke free underMichael II Komnenos Doukas. Theodore recovered Thessalonica in 1237, installing his sonJohn Komnenos Doukas, and after himDemetrios Angelos Doukas, as rulers of the city, while Manuel, with Nicaean support, seizedThessaly. The rulers of Thessalonica bore the imperial title from 1225/7 until 1242, when they were forced to renounce it and recognize the suzerainty of the rivalEmpire of Nicaea. The Komnenodoukai continued to rule asDespots of Thessalonica for four more years after that, but in 1246 the city was annexed by Nicaea. (Full article...)
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  TheByzantine Empire was ruled by emperors of theKomnenos dynasty for a period of 104 years, from 1081 to about 1185. TheKomnenian (also spelledComnenian) period comprises the reigns of five emperors,Alexios I,John II,Manuel I,Alexios II andAndronikos I. It was a period of sustained, though ultimately incomplete, restoration of the military, territorial, economic and political position of the Byzantine Empire.
  
  Byzantium under the Komnenoi played a key role in the history of theCrusades in theHoly Land, while also exerting enormous cultural and political influence in Europe, the Near East, and the lands around the Mediterranean Sea. The Komnenian emperors, particularly John and Manuel, exerted great influence over the Crusader states ofOutremer, whilst Alexios I played a key role in the course of theFirst Crusade, which he helped bring about. (Full article...)
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  Hesychasm (/ˈhɛsɪkæzəm,ˈhɛzɪ-/) is acontemplative monastic tradition in the Eastern Christian traditions of theEastern Orthodox Church andEastern Catholic Churches in which stillness (hēsychia) is sought through uninterruptedJesus prayer. While rooted in early Christian monasticism, it took its definitive form in the 14th century atMount Athos. (Full article...)
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  TheByzantine Empire was ruled by emperors of the dynasty ofHeraclius between 610 and 711 AD. The Heraclians presided over a period of cataclysmic events that were a watershed in the history of the Empire and the world. Heraclius, the founder of his dynasty, was ofArmenian andCappadocian (Greek) origin. At the beginning of the dynasty, the Empire's culture was still essentiallyAncient Roman, dominating theMediterranean and harbouring a prosperouslate antique urban civilization. This world was shattered by successive invasions, which resulted in extensive territorial losses, financial collapse and plagues that depopulated the cities, while religious controversies and rebellions further weakened the Empire.
  
  By the dynasty's end, the Empire had been transformed into a different state structure: now known in historiography as medieval Byzantine rather than (Ancient) Roman, a chiefly agrarian, military-dominated society that was engaged in a lengthy struggle with theMuslimRashidun Caliphate and successorUmayyad Caliphate. However, the Empire during this period became also far more homogeneous, being reduced to its mostlyGreek-speaking and firmlyChalcedonian core territories, which enabled it to weather these storms and enter a period of stability under the successorIsaurian dynasty. (Full article...)

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  Electrum coin with Theodore (left) blessed by Thessalonica's patron,St. Demetrius

  
  Theodore Komnenos Doukas (Greek:Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Δούκας,Theodōros Komnēnos Doukas;Latinized asTheodore Comnenus Ducas; diedc. 1253) orTheodore Angelos Komnenos was the ruler ofEpirus andThessaly from 1215 to 1230 and ofThessalonica and most ofMacedonia andwestern Thrace from 1224 to 1230. He was also thepower behind the rule of his sonsJohn andDemetrios over Thessalonica in 1237–1246.
  
  Theodore was thescion of a distinguishedByzantine aristocratic family related to the imperialKomnenos,Doukas, andAngelos dynasties. Nevertheless, nothing is known about Theodore's life before theconquest ofConstantinople and dissolution of the Byzantine Empire by theFourth Crusade in 1204. Following the fall of Constantinople, he servedTheodore I Laskaris, founder of theEmpire of Nicaea, for a few years before being called to Epirus, where his half-brotherMichael I Komnenos Doukas had founded an independent principality. When Michael died in 1215, Theodore sidelined his brother's underage and illegitimate sonMichael II and assumed the governance of the Epirote state. Theodore continued his brother's policy of territorial expansion. Allied withSerbia, he expanded into Macedonia, threatening the LatinKingdom of Thessalonica. The capture of theLatin EmperorPeter II of Courtenay in 1217 opened the way to the gradual envelopment of Thessalonica, culminating in the city's fall in 1224. (Full article...)
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  Constantine VII crowned by Christ, detail of an ivory plaque,Pushkin Museum, AD 945

  
  Constantine VIIPorphyrogenitus (17 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourthByzantine emperor of theMacedonian dynasty, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son ofEmperor Leo VI and his fourth wife,Zoe Karbonopsina, and the nephew of his predecessorAlexander.
  
  Most of his reign was dominated by co-regents: from 913 until 919 he was under the regency of his mother, while from 920 until 945 he shared the throne withRomanos Lekapenos, whose daughterHelena he married, and his sons. Constantine VII is best known for theGeoponika (τά γεωπονικά), an importantagronomic treatise compiled during his reign, and three, perhaps four, books;De Administrando Imperio (bearing in Greek the heading Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον υἱὸν Ῥωμανόν),De Ceremoniis (Περὶ τῆς Βασιλείου Τάξεως),De Thematibus (Περὶ θεμάτων Άνατολῆς καὶ Δύσεως), andVita Basilii (Βίος Βασιλείου), though his authorship of theVita Basilii is not certain. (Full article...)
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  Portrait of Alexios V from a15th-century codex containing a copy of theExtracts of History byJoannes Zonaras

  
  Alexios V Doukas (Greek:Ἀλέξιος Δούκας,romanized: Aléxios Doúkās; died December 1204),Latinized asAlexius V Ducas, wasByzantine emperor from February to April 1204, just prior to thesack of Constantinople by the participants of theFourth Crusade. His family name wasDoukas, but he was also known by the nicknameMourtzouphlos orMurtzuphlus (Μούρτζουφλος), referring to either bushy, overhanging eyebrows or a sullen, gloomy character. He achieved power through apalace coup, killing his predecessors in the process. Though he made vigorous attempts to defend Constantinople from the crusader army, his military efforts proved ineffective. His actions won the support of the mass of the populace, but he alienated the elite of the city. Following the fall, sack, and occupation of the city, Alexios V wasblinded by his father-in-law, the ex-emperorAlexios III, and later executed by the newLatin regime. He was the last Byzantine emperor to rule in Constantinople until the Byzantinerecapture of Constantinople in 1261. (Full article...)
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  Depiction from a contemporary portrait mosaic in theBasilica of San Vitale, Ravenna

  
  Theodora (/ˌθiːəˈdɔːrə/;Greek: Θεοδώρα;c. 490/500 – 28 June 548) was aRoman empress and wife of emperorJustinian I. She was of humble origins and became empress when her husband became emperor in 527. Theodora was one of his chief political advisers. She is recognized as a saint in theOriental Orthodox Churches, and commemorated on 14 November. (Full article...)
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  Restored depiction of Basil II from hisMenologion,National Historical Museum

  
  Basil II Porphyrogenitus (Greek:Βασίλειος Πορφυρογέννητος,romanized: Basíleios Porphyrogénnētos; 958 – 15 December 1025), nicknamedthe Bulgar Slayer (Greek:ὁ Βουλγαροκτόνος,ho Boulgaroktónos,Bulgarian:Българоубиец), was the seniorByzantine emperor from 976 to 1025. He and his brotherConstantine VIII werecrowned before their fatherRomanos II died in 963, but they were too young to rule. The throne thus went to two generals,Nikephoros Phokas (r. 963–969) andJohn Tzimiskes (r. 969–976) before Basil became senior emperor, though his influential great-uncleBasil Lekapenos remained as thede facto ruler until 985. His reign of 49 years and 11 months was the longest of anyRoman emperor.
  
  The early years of Basil's reign were dominated by civil wars against two powerful generals from theByzantine Anatolian aristocracy: firstBardas Skleros and laterBardas Phokas, which ended shortly after Phokas' death and Skleros' submission in 989. Basil then oversaw the stabilization and expansion of the eastern frontier of theByzantine Empire and thecomplete subjugation of theFirst Bulgarian Empire, its foremost European foe, after a long struggle. Although the Byzantines had made a truce with theFatimid Caliphate in 987–988, Basil led a campaign against the Caliphate that ended with another truce in 1000. He also conducted a campaign against theKhazar Khaganate that gained the Byzantine Empire part ofCrimea and aseries of successful campaigns against theKingdom of Georgia. (Full article...)
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  Nikephoros Ouranos (Greek:Νικηφόρος Οὐρανός; fl. c. 980 – c. 1010),Latinized asNicephorus Uranus, was a high-rankingByzantine official and general during the reign ofEmperorBasil II (r. 976–1025). One of the emperor's closest associates, he was active inEurope in thewars against the Bulgarians, scoring a major victory atSpercheios, and against theArabs inSyria, where he held command during the first decade of the 11th century as Basil's virtual viceroy. A well-educated man, he wrote amilitary manual (Taktika) and composed several surviving poems andhagiographies. (Full article...)
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  Coin depicting John II Megas Komnenos

  
  John II Megas Komnenos (Ancient Greek:Ἰωάννης Μέγας Κομνηνός,Iōannēs Megas Komnēnos) (c. 1262 – 16 August 1297) wasEmperor ofTrebizond from June 1280 to his death in 1297. He was the youngest son of EmperorManuel I and his third wife,Irene Syrikaina, a Trapezuntine noblewoman. John succeeded to the throne after his full-brotherGeorge was betrayed by hisarchons on the mountain of Taurezion. It was during his reign that the style of the rulers of Trebizond changed; until then, they claimed the traditional title of theByzantine emperors, "Emperor andAutocrat of theRomans", but from John II on they changed it to "Emperor and Autocrat of all the East, the Iberians, and theTransmarine Provinces", although Iberia had been lost in the reign ofAndronikos I Gidos.
  
  John is the first ruler of Trebizond for whom we know more than a few incidents and hints; there is enough information to compose a connected narrative of the first part of his reign. The chronicle ofMichael Panaretos, which is often terse and even cryptic, is relatively full for John's reign, and external sources add further details to Panaretos' account. Emperor John II faced many challenges to his rule, which partly explains his marriage to the daughter of the Byzantine emperorMichael VIII Palaiologos. (Full article...)
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  Miniature portrait in a manuscript ofGeorge Pachymeres'Historia, early 14th century

  
  Michael VIII Palaiologos orPalaeologus (Greek:Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος,romanized: Mikhaḗl Doúkās Ángelos Komnēnós Palaiológos; 1224 – 11 December 1282) reigned asByzantine emperor from 1261 until his death in 1282, and previously as the co-emperor of theEmpire of Nicaea from 1259 to 1261. Michael VIII was the founder of thePalaiologan dynasty that would rule theByzantine Empire until theFall of Constantinople in 1453. Herecovered Constantinople from theLatin Empire in 1261 and transformed the Empire of Nicaea into arestored Byzantine Empire. His reign saw considerable recovery of Byzantine power, including the enlargement of theByzantine army andnavy. It also included the reconstruction of the city of Constantinople, and the increase of its population. His re-establishment of theUniversity of Constantinople contributed to thePalaeologan Renaissance, a cultural flowering between the 13th and 15th centuries.
  
  It was also at this time that the focus of the Byzantine military shifted to the Balkans, against theBulgarians, leaving the Anatolian frontier neglected. His successors could not compensate for this change of focus, and both theArsenite schism and two civil wars which occurred from1321–1328 and1341–1347 undermined further efforts toward territorial consolidation and recovery, draining the empire's strength, economy, and resources. Regular conflict between Byzantine successor states such asTrebizond,Epirus, Bulgaria andSerbia resulted in permanent fragmentation of former Byzantine territory and opportunity for increasingly successful conquests of expansive territories by post-SeljukAnatolian beyliks, most notably that ofOsman, later called theOttoman Empire. (Full article...)
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  Miniature portrait of Manuel II, 1407–1409

  
  Manuel II Palaiologos orPalaeologus (Greek:Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος,romanized: Manouḗl Palaiológos,pronounced[ma.nuˈilpa.le.oˈlo.ɣos]; 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425) wasByzantine emperor from 1391 to 1425. Shortly before his death he wastonsured a monk and received the nameMatthaios (Ματθαίος). Manuel was a vassal of theOttoman Empire, which sometimes threatened to capture his territory outright. Accordingly he continued his father's practice of soliciting Western European aid against the Ottomans, andpersonally visited several foreign courts to plead his cause. These efforts failed, although anOttoman civil war and Byzantine victories againstLatin neighbors helped Manuel's government survive and slightly expand its influence. His wifeHelena Dragaš saw to it that their sons,John VIII andConstantine XI, became emperors. He is commemorated by theGreek Orthodox Church on21 July. (Full article...)
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  Athonite FrescoIcon of Saint Maximos the Confessor

  
  Maximus the Confessor (Greek:Μάξιμος ὁὉμολογητής,romanized: Maximos ho Homologētēs), also spelledMaximos, otherwise known asMaximus the Theologian andMaximus of Constantinople (c. 580 – 13 August 662), was aChristianmonk,theologian, and scholar.
  
  In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to theByzantine EmperorHeraclius. He gave up this life in the political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, likePlotinus,Porphyry,Iamblichus, andProclus. When one of his friends began espousing theChristological position known asMonothelitism, Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of theChalcedonian formula on the basis of which it was asserted thatJesus had both a human and a divinewill. Maximus isvenerated in both theCatholic andEastern Orthodox Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. (Full article...)
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  Solidus of Irene issued during her sole reign

  
  Irene of Athens (Greek:Εἰρήνη,Eirḗnē; 750/756 – 9 August 803), surnameSarantapechaena (Greek:Σαρανταπήχαινα,Sarantapḗchaina), wasByzantineempress consort toEmperor Leo IV from 775 to 780,regent during the childhood of their sonConstantine VI from 780 until 790, co-ruler from 792 until 797, and finallyempress regnant and sole ruler of theEastern Roman Empire from 797 to 802. A member of the politically prominentSarantapechos family, she was selected asLeo IV's bride for unknown reasons in 768. Even though her husband was aniconoclast, she harborediconophile sympathies. During her rule as regent, she called theSecond Council of Nicaea in 787, which condemned iconoclasm asheretical and brought an end to thefirst iconoclast period (730–787). During her 5 year sole reign, her public figure was polarizing, due to the setbacks faced by the Empire and her iconophilic stances, often attributed to her gender and the influence of her retinue. Her reign as sole ruler made her the first ever empress regnant, ruling in her own right, in Roman and Byzantine imperial history.
  
  After the death of her husband, Irene secured the throne for her family, setting herself in charge. During her regency with Constantine VI, she became very influential in government policies, largely overshadowing her son. As Constantine VI reached maturity, he began to move out from under the influence of his mother. In the early 790s, several revolts attempted to proclaim him as sole ruler. One of these revolts succeeded, but in 792 Irene was re-established in all imperial powers as "co-emperor" with Constantine VI. In 797, Irene organized a conspiracy in which her supporters gouged out her son's eyes. Constantine was imprisoned and probably died shortly afterwards. With him out of the way, Irene proclaimed herself sole ruler.Pope Leo III—already seeking to break links with the Byzantine East—used Irene's alleged unprecedented status as a female ruler of theRoman Empire to proclaimCharlemagne asEmperor of the Romans on Christmas Day of 800 under the pretext that a woman could not rule solely and thus the Roman throne was actually vacant. A revolt in 802 overthrew Irene and exiled her to the island ofLesbos, supplanting her on the throne withNikephoros I. Irene died in exile less than a year later. (Full article...)
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  Peter the Patrician (Latin:Petrus Patricius,Greek:Πέτρος ὁ Πατρίκιος,Petros ho Patrikios;c. 500–565) was a seniorByzantine official,diplomat, andhistorian. A well-educated and successfullawyer, he was repeatedly sent as envoy toOstrogothic Italy in the prelude to theGothic War of 535–554. Despite his diplomatic skill, he was not able to avert war, and was imprisoned by theGoths inRavenna for a few years. Upon his release, he was appointed to the post ofmagister officiorum, head of the imperial secretariat, which he held for an unparalleled 26 years. In this capacity, he was one of the leading ministers of EmperorJustinian I (r. 527–565), playing an important role in the Byzantine emperor's religious policies and the relations withSassanid Persia; most notably he led the negotiations for thepeace agreement of 562 that ended the 20-year-longLazic War. His historical writings survive only in fragments, but provide unique source material on early Byzantine ceremonies and diplomatic issues between Byzantium and the Sassanids. (Full article...)
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  Theodora Megale Komnene (Greek:Θεοδώρα Μεγάλη Κομνηνή), also known asDespina Khatun (Persian:دسپینا خاتون; from the Greek titledespoina and Turco-Mongol titlekhatun, both meaning "lady"), was the daughter ofJohn IV of Trebizond and his wifeBagrationi, a daughter of KingAlexander I of Georgia. She married theAq Qoyunlu rulerUzun Hasan in 1458. She became the mother ofHalima Alamshah Hatun who became the mother of firstSafavid king,Shah Ismail I.
  
  Some older writers refer to her as "Catherine". Charles Diehl has shown that it was based onDu Cange’s misunderstanding of the Mongol title "Khatun" as "Catherine". (Full article...)
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  Bust of an emperor found inAphrodisias (Aydın,Turkey), most likely Theodosius I

  
  Theodosius I (Ancient Greek:ΘεοδόσιοςTheodosios; 11 January 347 – 17 January 395), also known asTheodosius the Great, wasRoman emperor from 379 to 395. He won two civil wars and was instrumental in establishing theNicene Creed as the orthodox doctrine forNicene Christianity. Theodosius was the last emperor to rule the entireRoman Empire before its administration was permanently split between theWestern Roman Empire and theEastern Roman Empire. He ended theGothic War (376–382), but did so on terms disadvantageous to the empire, with the Goths remaining and politically autonomous within Roman territory, albeit as nominal allies.
  
  Born inHispania, Theodosius was the son of a high-ranking general of the same name,Count Theodosius, under whose guidance he rose through the ranks of theRoman army. Theodosius held independent command inMoesia in 374, where he had some success against the invadingSarmatians. Not long afterwards, he was forced into retirement, and his father was executed under obscure circumstances. Theodosius soon regained his position following a series of intrigues and executions at EmperorGratian's court. In 379, after the eastern Roman emperorValens was killed at theBattle of Adrianople against theGoths, Gratian appointed Theodosius as a successor with orders to take charge of the military emergency. The new emperor's resources and depleted armies were not sufficient to drive the invaders out; in 382 the Goths were allowed to settle south of theDanube as autonomous allies of the empire. In 386, Theodosius signed a treaty with theSasanian Empire which partitioned the long-disputedKingdom of Armenia and secured a durable peace between the two powers. (Full article...)
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  Nikephoros Phokas (Greek:Νικηφόρος Φωκᾶς,romanized: Nikēphoros Phōkas; died 895/6 orc. 900), usually surnamedthe Elder to distinguish him from his grandson, EmperorNikephoros II Phokas, was one of the most prominentByzantine generals of the late 9th century, and the first important member of thePhokas family. As a youth he was taken into the personal retinue of EmperorBasil I the Macedonian, rising quickly to the posts ofprotostrator and then governor ofCharsianon, whence he fought with success against theArabs. Inc. 886 he led a major expedition insouthern Italy, where his victories laid the foundation for theByzantine resurgence in the peninsula. After his return, he was raised to the post ofDomestic of the Schools, in effect commander-in-chief of the army, which he led with success against the Arabs in the east and theBulgarians of TsarSimeon in theBalkans. He died either in 895/6 or, less likely, sometimec. 900. Contemporaries and later historians lauded him for his military ability and character. Both of his sons later succeeded him as Domestics of the Schools. His grandsons Nikephoros andLeo were likewise distinguished generals, while the former became emperor in 963–969, spearheading the recovery of several lost provinces from the Arabs. (Full article...)
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  Michael Psellos (left) with his student, Byzantine emperorMichael VII Doukas

  
  Michael Psellos orPsellus (Greek:Μιχαὴλ Ψελλός,romanized: Michaḗl Psellós,Byzantine Greek:[mixaˈilpseˈlːos]) was aByzantine Greek monk, savant, writer, philosopher, imperial courtier, historian and music theorist. He was born in 1017 or 1018, and is believed to have died in 1078, although it has also been maintained that he remained alive until 1096. He served as a high ranking courtier and advisor to severalByzantine emperors and was instrumental in the re-positioning of power of those emperors. Psellos has made lasting contributions to Byzantine culture by advocating for the revival of Byzantineclassical studies, which would later influence theItalian Renaissance, as well as by interpretingHomeric literature andPlatonic philosophy as precursors and integral components ofChristian doctrine. His texts combinedtheology, philosophy, and psychology. Among his most famous works are hisCommentary on Plato's Teachings on the Origin of the Soul, and theChronographia, a series of biographies from emperorBasil II toNikephoros III, which serves as a valuable source on the history of the 11th centuryByzantine Empire. (Full article...)
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  Basil Lekapenos (Greek:Βασίλειος Λεκαπηνός,romanized: Basíleios Lekapēnós;c. 925 –c. 985), also calledthe Parakoimomenos (ὁ παρακοιμώμενος) orthe Nothos (ὁ Νόθος, "the Bastard"), was anillegitimate child of theByzantine emperorRomanos I Lekapenos. He served as theparakoimomenos and chief minister of theByzantine Empire for most of the period 947 to 985, under emperorsConstantine VII (his brother-in-law),Romanos II (his nephew),Nikephoros II Phokas,John I Tzimiskes, andBasil II (his great nephew). (Full article...)
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  Fresco fromThe Chora, 14th cent.

  
  Gregory of Nazianzus (Greek:Γρηγόριος ὁ Ναζιανζηνός,romanized: Grēgorios ho Nazianzēnos;c. 329 – 25 January 390), also known asGregory the Theologian orGregory Nazianzen, was an earlyRoman Christian theologian and prelate who served asArchbishop of Constantinople from 380 to 381. He is widely considered the most accomplished rhetorical stylist of thepatristic age. As a classically trained orator and philosopher, he infusedHellenism into theearly Church, establishing the paradigm ofByzantine theologians and church officials.
  
  Gregory made a significant impact on the shape ofTrinitarian theology among both Greek andLatin-speaking theologians, and he is remembered as the "Trinitarian Theologian". Much of his theological work continues to influence modern theologians, especially in regard to the relationship among the three Persons of the Trinity. Along with the brothersBasil of Caesarea andGregory of Nyssa, he is known as one of theCappadocian Fathers. (Full article...)
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  Theblinding of Alexios Komnenos, illuminated miniature from a manuscript of the history ofWilliam of Tyre, now in theBibliothèque nationale de France

  
  Alexios Komnenos (Greek:Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός;c. 1135/42 – after 1182) was aByzantine aristocrat and courtier. A son ofAndronikos Komnenos and nephew of EmperorManuel I Komnenos, he rose to the high rank ofprōtostratōr in 1167. In 1176 he participated in theMyriokephalon campaign where, following the death of his older brotherJohn, he was raised to the titles ofprōtosebastos andprōtovestiarios. Following Manuel's death in 1180, he won the favour, and reportedly became the lover, of Empress-dowagerMaria of Antioch. Through her he ruled the Byzantine Empire for two years asde facto regent of the underage emperorAlexios II Komnenos. The aristocracy challenged his dominance, led by the princessMaria Komnene, who plotted to assassinate theprōtosebastos. The plot was discovered and most conspirators arrested, but Maria and her husband fled to theHagia Sophia, protected by PatriarchTheodosios Borradiotes and the common people ofConstantinople.
  
  Mounting tensions resulted in a popular uprising against Alexios' regime on 2 May 1181, (modern scholars have proposed other dates as well), which ended in a mutual reconciliation. His power shaken, theprōtosebastos reacted by punishing Borradiotes for his role in the affair. Overwhelming opposition, both among the people and the aristocracy, forced him to recall Borradiotes soon after. These events left Alexios in poor shape to oppose the advance of the adventurerAndronikos I Komnenos, who moved against Constantinople from the east. The generals dispatched against Andronikos were defeated or defected, and the usurper entered the city in April 1182. Theprōtosebastos Alexios was deposed, publicly humiliated, andmutilated. His fate thereafter is not known. (Full article...)
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  Bardanes, nicknamedTourkos, "the Turk" (Greek:Βαρδάνης ὁ Τοῦρκος,romanized: Bardanēs ho Tourkos,fl. 795–803), was aByzantine general who launched an unsuccessful rebellion against EmperorNikephoros I (r. 802–811) in 803. Although a major supporter ofByzantine empressIrene of Athens (r. 797–802), soon after her overthrow he was appointed by Nikephoros as commander-in-chief of theAnatolian armies. From this position, he launched a revolt in July 803, probably in opposition to Nikephoros's economic and religious policies. His troops marched towardsConstantinople, but failed to win popular support. At this point, some of his major supporters deserted him and, reluctant to engage the loyalist forces in battle, Bardanes gave up and chose to surrender himself. He retired as a monk to a monastery he had founded. There he was blinded, possibly on Nikephoros's orders. (Full article...)
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  Anna Dalassene (Greek:Ἄννα Δαλασσηνή; ca. 1025/30 – 1 November 1100/02) was an importantByzantine noblewoman who played a significant role in the rise to power of theKomnenoi in the eleventh century. She exercised great influence over her son, the EmperorAlexios I Komnenos, who gave her the title of empress. She also administered the empire as regent during his many absences from Constantinople on long military campaigns during the early part of his reign. As empress-mother, she exerted more influence and power than the empress-consort,Irene Doukaina, a woman whom she hated because of past intrigues with theDoukai. (Full article...)
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  Detail of amosaic of Justinian in theBasilica of San Vitale inRavenna, AD 547

  
  Justinian I (Latin:Iustinianus,Ancient Greek:Ἰουστινιανός,romanized: Ioustinianós; 482 – 14 November 565), also known asJustinian the Great, wasRoman emperor from 527 to 565.
  
  His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realizedrenovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunctWestern Roman Empire. His general,Belisarius, swiftly conquered theVandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius,Narses, and other generalsconquered theOstrogothic Kingdom, restoringDalmatia,Sicily,Italy, andRome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by theOstrogoths. Thepraetorian prefect Liberius reclaimed the south of theIberian Peninsula, establishing the province ofSpania. These campaigns re-established Roman control over the western Mediterranean, increasing the Empire's annual revenue by over a millionsolidi. During his reign, Justinian also subdued theTzani, a people on the east coast of theBlack Sea that had never been under Roman rule before. He engaged theSasanian Empire in the east duringKavad I's reign, and later again duringKhosrow I's reign; this second conflict was partially initiated due to his ambitions in the west. (Full article...)
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  Fresco of Constantine XI from the Catholicon of the Old Monastery of Taxiarches inAigialeia, mid-15th century

  
  Constantine XI Dragases Palaiologos orDragašPalaeologus (Greek:Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος,romanized: Kōnstantīnos Dragásēs Palaiológos; 8 February 1404 – 29 May 1453), known in folklore as theMarble Emperor, was the last reigningByzantine emperor from 23 January 1449 until his death in battle at thefall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453. Constantine's death marked the definitive end of theEastern Roman Empire, which traced its origin toConstantine the Great's foundation ofConstantinople as theRoman Empire's new capital in 330.
  
  Constantine was the fourth son of EmperorManuel II Palaiologos andSerbian noblewomanHelena Dragaš. Little is known of his early life, but from the 1420s onward, he repeatedly demonstrated great skill as a military general. Based on his career and surviving contemporary sources, Constantine appears to have been primarily a soldier. This does not mean that Constantine was not also a skilled administrator: he was trusted and favored to such an extent by his older brother, EmperorJohn VIII Palaiologos, that he was designated asregent twice during John VIII's journeys away from Constantinople in 1423–1424 and 1437–1440. In 1427–1428, Constantine and John fended off an attack on theMorea (thePeloponnese) byCarlo I Tocco, ruler ofEpirus, and in 1428 Constantine was proclaimedDespot of the Morea and ruled the province together with his older brotherTheodore and his younger brotherThomas. Together, they extended Roman rule to cover almost the entire Peloponnese for the first time since theFourth Crusade more than two hundred years before and rebuilt the ancientHexamilion wall, which defended the peninsula from outside attacks. Although ultimately unsuccessful, Constantine personally led a campaign intoCentral Greece andThessaly in 1444–1446, attempting to extend Byzantine rule into Greece once more. (Full article...)
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  Alexios I Komnenos (Greek:Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός,romanized: Aléxios Komnēnós,c. 1057 – 15 August 1118),Latinized asAlexius I Comnenus, wasByzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Afterusurping the throne he was faced with a collapsing empire and constant warfare throughout his reign. Alexios was able to curb the Byzantine decline and begin the military, financial, and territorial recovery known as theKomnenian restoration. His appeals to Western Europe for help against theSeljuk Turks were the catalyst that sparked theFirst Crusade. Although he was not the first emperor of theKomnenian dynasty, it was during his reign that the Komnenos family came to full power and initiated a hereditary succession to the throne.
  
  The son ofJohn Komnenos and a nephew ofIsaac I Komnenos, Alexios served with distinction under three Byzantine emperors. In 1081, he led a rebellion against EmperorNikephoros III Botaneiates and took the throne for himself. He immediately facedan invasion of the western Balkans by theNormans underRobert Guiscard and his sonBohemond. Despite initial defeats, Alexios secured an alliance withHoly Roman EmperorHenry IV and drove back the Normans, recovering most of Byzantine losses by 1085. In 1091, he achieved a decisive victory over thePechenegs at theBattle of Levounion inThrace with the help ofCuman allies. (Full article...)
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  Trachy of Michael II

  
  Michael II Komnenos Doukas,Latinized asComnenus Ducas (Greek:Μιχαήλ Β΄ Κομνηνός Δούκας,Mikhaēl II Komnēnos Doukas), often calledMichael Angelos in narrative sources, was from 1230 until his death in 1266/68 the ruler of theDespotate of Epirus, which includedEpirus in northwestern Greece, the western part ofGreek Macedonia andThessaly, and westernGreece as far south asNafpaktos. (Full article...)

Alexios Komnenos (megas doux) • Cyril Phileotes • Demetrios Chrysoloras • John Doukas (son of Nikephoros Bryennios)

Battle of the Bosporus • Chortaiton

War of the Straits

Byzantine literature of the Komnenian and Angelid periods • Castle of Saint George, Cephalonia • Xeros family

Al-A'la plateau • Battle of Melitene (576) • Council of Blachernae (1157) • Nicephorus II of Kiev • Principality of Benevento • Venetian expedition to the Levant (1099–1100)

Tzamandos

Armenians in the Byzantine Empire • Blakhiya Byzantine cemetery • Struggle for Constantinople • Tzamplakon family

Constantine Kephalas • Death in the Byzantine Empire

Albert Vogt • Asclepiades of Tralles • Battle of Archesh • Holy Archangels Church, Thiseio • Kalamata Castle • Khurdad (son of Hurmuzd-Afarid) • Theoclite the Wonderworker • Zarnata

Botaneiates • Eunuchs in the Byzantine Empire • Journey of Manuel II to Western Europe • Mary Whitby • Theodore (prefect of Egypt)

Georgios Sotiriou • Lycus (river of Constantinople) • Capitolium of Constantinople • Secundinus (consul 511) • Praetorium of Constantinople

Strategion • Vandal War (461–468)

Anthony the Confessor • Battle of Caesarea (1073) • Byzantine Church of Jabalia • Cistern of Pulcheria • Eustathios Kamytzes • Hajji Amir • Jerusalem during the Byzantine period • Koustouganes • Suleiman of Chalybia • Theodora of Thessaloniki • Thomais of Lesbos

Twelve noble families of Crete

Battle of Kutais

Mutahharten • Oracles of Leo the Wise • Siege of Serres • Suleiman I of Candar • [[Zawiyat al-Qsur and Qasr Sidi al-Khadri]

Innovation in Byzantine medicine

Kinsterna

Basil Kourtikios • Battle of Dristra • Frankoulios Servopoulos • Michael Laskaris • Nicholas Maurokatakalon • Nikephoros Loukanes • Ottoman conquest of the Morea • Tornikios family

George Palaiologos

Arsenite Schism • Byzantine North Africa

Ashot II Bagratuni • Chrysippus of Jerusalem • Conversion of Volodimer • Hamazasp IV Mamikonian

Duchy of Antioch • Katakalon Tarchaneiotes • Ottaviano Querini • Simone Vignoso

Jacopo Tiepolo

Egidio Querini • Giacomo Baseggio • Giovanni Michiel (13th century) • Jacopo Dolfin • Marco Gausoni • Marco Gradenigo • Teofilo Zeno • Virgin's veil

Byzantine–Hungarian War (1180–1185) • Council of Constantinople (843) • Siege of Corinth (1458) • Theophilus Antecessor

Alviso Diedo • Castle of Arta

Nicholas Orsini

Harbor of Eutropius • Mount Lebanon revolts of 752 and 759 • Vardan II

Hagios Spyridon, Rhodes • Rufinus (Roman official) • Sergius (Byzantine general)

Hagia Sophia, Drama • Pammegistoi Taxiarches church

Aigan (Hun commander) • Althias • Apsich • Ascan • Atakam • Basil Peteinos • Berichus • Chalazar • Chelchal • Donatus (Huns) • Edeco • Elmingir • Eslas • Gordas • Hetaireiarches • Hormidac • Kursich • Mamas (Hun prince) • Manuel Kourtikes • Odolgan • Rhetorical School of Gaza • Scottas • Sigizan • Simmas • Tarrach • Turgun • Uldach • Zilgibis

Abraham of Ephesus

Cultural depictions of Theophanu • Zampia Palaiologina

Allīnūs

Constantine of Nicaea • Hilarion the Younger • Hisarlaka fortress • Porphyrios (whale) • Theodore Synkellos

John Kourkouas (died 971) • Makarios of Pelekete • Mansur ibn Sarjun • Narses (comes) • Sa'id ibn Hisham

Battle of Cillium (544) • Church of Panagia Atheniotissa • Hans Georg Beck

Battle of Thacia • Leontius of Damascus • Niketas of Mistheia • Theaetetus Scholasticus

Al-Harith ibn al-Hakam • Battle of Bourgaon • Battle of Sufetula (546 or 547) • Olympias (daughter of Robert Guiscard) • St. Aberkios Monastery • Sekbanbaşı Mosque

Çanlı Kilise • Erard I of Aulnay • Geoffrey of Aulnay • Joachim of Korsun

Alexios V of Trebizond • Diogenes (Byzantine family) • Manolis Hatzidakis

Christianization of the Roman Empire

Andrea Angeli • Angelo Maria Angeli • Dagmar Cross • Enrico de Vigo Paleologo • Giovanni Andrea I Angeli • Giovanni Andrea II Angeli • Giovanni Demetrio Angeli • Girolamo I Angeli • Girolamo II Angeli • John George Heracleus Basilicos • Marco Angeli • Pietro Angeli • Pietro Paleologo Mastrogiovanni • Siege of Emesa (638)

Demetrius Rhodocanakis • Dhu'l-Kala Samayfa • Georgios Kalliergis • Manuel Fokas • Nikolaos Philanthropinos • Radu Cantacuzino • Venetikà

Michael Synkellos

Angelo Flavio Comneno • Arianitto Arianiti

Manuel Panselinos

Andronikos Euphorbenos • Gulfaris • Italo-Byzantine • John of Gaza • Junada ibn Abi Umayya al-Azdi

Coronation of the Byzantine emperor • Erotapokriseis • Loci communes (Pseudo-Maximus) • Michael Toxaras • Nicholas of Methone • Rubens vase • Soterichos Panteugenos • Symeon Logothete

Matthew Blastares

Dimitris Krallis • Fadala ibn Ubayd • Lucillianus (fleet commander) • Lucillianus (magister equitum) • Marios Philippides • Niketas Abalantes • Siege of Taormina (902) • Tablion

Ali ibn Yusuf ibn Umar • Byzantine Dark Ages • Synod of Worms (868) • Isaac Komnenos Vatatzes • Kamytzes • Klimova Treasure • Yusuf ibn Umar ibn Shu'ayb

447 Constantinople earthquake • Byzantine–Serbian War (1090–1095) • Despot of Epirus • King of Thessalonica • Louis II's campaign against Bari (866–871) • Sebukht

Anastasiopolis-Peritheorion • Athenogenes of Petra • Baths of Arcadius • Battle of Zygos Pass • Byzantine–Serbian wars • Palaeologan Renaissance • Red Church (Vourgareli) • Siege of Constantinople (1394–1402) • Synaxarion of Constantinople

Al-Ghazal • Anthony Kaldellis • Domitian of Melitene • George Palaiologos (megas hetaireiarches) • Hellenic Institute of Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Studies in Venice • Hypatos ton philosophon • Vagenetia • Vitalien Laurent

Vazelon Monastery

Alice-Mary Talbot • Arietta Papaconstantinou • Gregory Antiochos • List of Byzantine composers • Sack of Aleppo (962) • Sophia Antoniadis • Theoktiste (740–802)

Manuel Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)

Anthusa of Mantinea • Byzantine–Venetian treaty of 1277 • Church of St Acacius • Council of Constantinople (536) • Council of Jerusalem (536) • Deno Geanakoplos • Didymoteicho Fortress • Diogenes of Phoenicia • Endemic synod • Heliou Bomon monastery • Isaac Doukas Vatatzes • John Haldon • Kecharitomene Monastery • Kokkinobaphos Master • Marco Bembo • Monastery of Saint Mamas • Niccolò Sagundino • Peter of Apamea • Riniasa Castle • Stephanus of Athens • Theotokos Euergetis Monastery • Theotokos Kosmosoteira

Constantine Angelos Doukas • John Chortasmenos • Manuel Kamytzes

Andrea Barozzi • Andreas Palaiologos (son of Manuel) • Chronicle of 813 • Chronicle of 846 • Iacopo Barozzi • Iacopo II Barozzi • Jacopo Dondulo • Palaeologus-Montferrat • Rainerio of Travale • Seraglio Octateuch • Women in the Byzantine Empire

Anthusa of Constantinople • Glavinica (medieval town) • Gothograecia • Gregentios • Maritime Venice • Niketas David Paphlagon • Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite • Severianus of Damascus • Slavic migrations to the Balkans • Theodore of Raithu

Basilikos logos • Damsel of Cyprus • Diocese of Abydos • John Diakrinomenos • John Robert Martindale • John Xenos • Karykes • Laskaris Kananos • Meletios the Younger • Mutinensis gr. 122 • Rhapsomates

Theodore II Laskaris

Al-Walid ibn Hisham al-Mu'ayti • Column of Leo • Degik • Dorotheus (magister militum) • Frankish Table of Nations • Gaianites • Herodian (commander) • Maslama ibn Hisham • Nachoragan • Pegonites • Succession to the Byzantine Empire • Timothy of Constantinople • Umar ibn al-Walid

Ahmad ibn Ziyadat Allah ibn Qurhub • Ayasuluk Hill • Al-Harith ibn Hisham • Khalil ibn Ishaq al-Tamimi • Roman people • Salim ibn Asad ibn Abi Rashid • Siege of Laodicea (636) • Ubayd Allah ibn Marwan

Miriarcha • Theodore I Laskaris

Carmagnola (Venice) • Forty-Nine Martyrs of Scetis • George of Kiev • Iyad (tribe) • John W. Barker • Libadarios • Problem of two emperors

Ahmad ibn al-Hasan al-Kalbi • Battle of Mammes • Busr ibn Abi Artat • Byzantine Malta • Devastatio Constantinopolitana • George Synadenos Astras • Irene Komnene Palaiologina • Monastery of Panagia Molyvdoskepastos • Peter of Goulaion • Stephen du Perche (died 1205)

Banu Judham • Gordoservon • Sack of Thessalonica (904)

Constantine the Jew • John Tzibus • Longinus (missionary) • Siege of Ravenna (539–540) • Siege of Urbinus • Siege of Urviventus

461 Apahunik' earthquake • 602 Surb Karapet Monastery earthquake • Constantine Arianiti • Constantine Komnenos Arianites • Enaton • Ferdinand Palaiologos • John Doukas (megas hetaireiarches) • Julian (Chalcedonian patriarch of Antioch) • Nikon of the Black Mountain • Theodore Palaiologos (16th century)

Andreas Palaiologos

499 Nicopolis earthquake • 542 Sea of Marmara earthquake • 551 Malian Gulf earthquake • 554 Anatolia earthquake • Ammatus • Bathys Rhyax • Florentius of Constantinople • List of Byzantine emperors of Armenian origin • Siege of Onoguris • Synthronon

Abd Allah ibn Mas'ada al-Fazari • Basilakes • Battle of Nisibis (541) • Battle of Scardon • Battle of the Bagradas River (536) • Gardiki Castle, Arcadia • Hellenization in the Byzantine Empire • Heraclian revolt • Losorion • Manuel Bochalis • Matzouka • Moutalaske • Paul of Edessa (translator) • Phoulkon • Prohor of Pčinja • Siege of Ariminum (538) • Siege of Auximus • Sufyan ibn Awf

Amr ibn Hind

Hagiotheodorites • Makrinitissa Monastery • Martinus (son of Heraclius) • Tiberius (son of Heraclius)

Battle of Settepozzi

Photo credit: Robert Raderschatt

Featured articles

Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (806) • Andreas Palaiologos • Basiliscus • Battle of Azaz (1030) • Battle of Dyrrhachium (1081) • Battle of Kalavrye • Battle of Lalakaon • Battle of Settepozzi • Byzantine civil war of 1341–1347 • Byzantine Empire • Byzantine navy • Chariot racing • David (son of Heraclius) • Greece runestones • Gregory of Nazianzus • Istanbul • Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria • Manuel I Komnenos • Marcian • Martinus (son of Heraclius) • Maximus the Confessor • Paul Palaiologos Tagaris • Roman–Persian Wars • Sack of Amorium • Sayf al-Dawla • Siege of Constantinople (674–678) • Siege of Constantinople (717–718) • Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430) • Simeon I of Bulgaria • Theodore II Laskaris • Theodore Komnenos Doukas • Theodosius III • Thomas the Slav • Treaty of Devol • Jovan Vladimir

A-class articles

Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor (782) • Abu'l-Aswar Shavur ibn Fadl • Ahmad ibn Tulun • Al-Mundhir III ibn al-Harith • Bardanes Tourkos • Battle of Andrassos • Battle of Kapetron • Battle of Petroe • Battle of Solachon • Bessas (magister militum) • Byzantine–Sassanid War of 602–628 • Christopher Lekapenos • Constantine (son of Basil I) • Excubitors • Glycerius • John Kourkouas • John Troglita • Junayd of Aydın • Manuel Kamytzes • Priscus (magister militum) • Staurakios • Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria • Vitalian (consul)

Good articles

Aaron (son of Ivan Vladislav) • Abdallah al-Battal • Abu Firas al-Hamdani • Abu Taghlib • Adrianos Komnenos • Alexios Apokaukos • Alexios Komnenos (governor of Dyrrhachium) • Alexios Komnenos (protosebastos) • Alexios Philanthropenos • Alexios Strategopoulos • Alexios V Doukas • Alexios V of Trebizond • Amr ibn al-As • Anastasius I Dicorus • Andronikos V Palaiologos • Andronikos Doukas (co-emperor) • Andronikos Doukas Angelos • Andronikos Komnenos (son of Alexios I) • Anna Anachoutlou • Artabanes (general) • Avar–Byzantine wars • Bardas • Basil II • Basiliscus (Caesar) • Baths of Zeuxippus • Battle of Akroinon • Battle of Alexandretta • Battle of Anzen • Battle of Apamea • Battle of Arcadiopolis (970) • Battle of Bathys Ryax • Battle of Constantinople (922) • Battle of Kleidion • Battle of Kopidnadon • Battle of Krasos • Battle of Manzikert • Battle of Mauropotamos • Battle of Saint George • Battle of the Gates of Trajan • Battle of the Olive Grove of Koundouros • Battle of Yarmouk • Boniface of Verona • Busr ibn Abi Artat • Byzantine–Arab Wars • Byzantine–Bulgarian war of 894–896 • Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty • Byzantine Greeks • Byzantine–Venetian treaty of 1268 • Byzantine–Venetian treaty of 1277 • Chalke • Chlemoutsi • Church of St. Polyeuctus • Codex Sinaiticus • Constantine V • Constantine VIII • Constantine (son of Leo V) • Constantine Angelos • Constantine Angelos Doukas • Constantine Dalassenos (duke of Antioch) • Constantine Diogenes • Constantine Doukas (usurper) • Constantine Komnenos Angelos • Constantine Lekapenos • Constantine the Great • Coronation of the Byzantine emperor • Cutzinas • David III of Tao • Domestic of the Schools • Droungarios of the Fleet • Droungarios of the Watch • Emirate of Crete • Eustathios Argyros (general under Leo VI) • Eustathios Daphnomeles • Eutharic • Euthymius I of Constantinople • Gabras • Genoese occupation of Rhodes • Geoffrey of Briel • George Mouzalon • George Palaiologos (megas hetaireiarches) • Germanus (cousin of Justinian I) • Glarentza • Gothic War (535–554) • Gubazes II of Lazica • Guy Pallavicini • Harald Hardrada • Harbor of Eutropius • Heraclius • Heraclius (son of Constans II) • Heraclius the Elder • Heraclonas • Isaac I Komnenos • Isaac Komnenos (brother of Alexios I) • Isaac Komnenos (son of Alexios I) • Isaac Komnenos (son of John II) • John Doukas (megas doux) • John Doukas (sebastokrator) • John I Doukas of Thessaly • John II Komnenos • John IV of Ohrid • John VII Palaiologos • John Komnenos (Domestic of the Schools) • John Komnenos (governor of Dyrrhachium) • John Komnenos Asen • John Komnenos the Fat • John of Brienne • John Palaiologos (brother of Michael VIII) • John Tzelepes Komnenos • Julius Nepos • Justin I • Justin (consul 540) • Justinian I • Khalid ibn al-Walid • Konstantios Doukas • Law School of Beirut • Leo II (emperor) • Leo IV the Khazar • Leontios • Leo Tornikios • Licario • Mansur ibn Lu'lu' • Manuel Erotikos Komnenos • Manuel Komnenos (kouropalates) • Manuel Komnenos (son of Andronikos I) • Manuel Palaiologos • Manuel the Armenian • Marianos Argyros • Martino Zaccaria • Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik • Maurice (emperor) • Mauro-Roman Kingdom • Megas logothetes • Michael I Komnenos Doukas • Michael IV the Paphlagonian • Michael VIII Palaiologos • Michael Bourtzes • Michael Dokeianos • Michael Lachanodrakon • Momchil • Mu'awiya I • al-Muktafi • Muslim conquest of Sicily • Mutinensis gr. 122 • Nikephoros III Botaneiates • Nikephoros (Caesar) • Nikephoros Diogenes • Nikephoros Komnenos • Nikephoros Komnenos (brother of Alexios I) • Nikephoros Melissenos • Nikephoros Phokas Barytrachelos • Nikephoros Phokas the Elder • Nikephoros Xiphias • Orphanotrophos • Ottoman conquest of Lesbos • Peter the Patrician • Problem of two emperors • Protostrator • Romanos III Argyros • Sack of Damietta (853) • Sa'd al-Dawla • Salih ibn Mirdas • Shahrbaraz • Shibl al-Dawla Nasr • Siege of Berat (1280–1281) • Siege of Constantinople (860) • Siege of Damascus (634) • Siege of Jerusalem (637) • Siege of Kamacha (766) • Siege of Nicaea (727) • Siege of Patras (805 or 807) • Siege of Shaizar • Siege of Syracuse (877–878) • Siege of Taormina (902) • Siege of Tyana • Solomon (magister militum) • Staurakios • Staurakios (eunuch) • Stephen Lekapenos • Stratopedarches • Stylianos Zaoutzes • Syrgiannes Palaiologos • Thekla (daughter of Theophilos) • Theodora (wife of Theophilos) • Theodora Porphyrogenita • Theodore I Laskaris • Theodore Synadenos • Theodosius I • Theodosius (son of Maurice) • Theophylact (son of Michael I) • Theoktistos • Thomas Palaiologos • Tiberius III • Tiberius (son of Constans II) • Tiberius (son of Justinian II) • Tocco family • Treaty of Gallipoli • Turahan Bey • Type of Constans • Tzachas • Umar al-Aqta • Uprising of Ivaylo • Vandalic War • Walls of Constantinople • Yazdegerd II • Zoë Porphyrogenita

• Association Internationale des Études Byzantines (AIEB)(in English, French, and Greek)
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• AHRB Centre for Byzantine Cultural History(in English)
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• Byzantium (ca. 330–1453), The Metropolitan Museum of Art(in English)
• Βυζαντινό και Χριστιανικό Μουσείο - Byzantine and Christian Museum, Athens, Greece(in Greek and English)
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• Icons and Iconoclasm in Byzantium, The Metropolitan Museum of Art(in English)
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• Μουσείο Βυζανινού Πολιτισμού - Museum of Byzantine Culture, Thessaloniki, Greece(in Greek and English)
• God's Regents on Earth: A Thousand Years of Byzantine Imperial Seals, from the Dumbarton Oaks Collection(in English)

• 12 Byzantine Rulers, by Lars Brownworth (audiobooks)(in English)
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• Byzantine Coins(in English)
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• The Byzantine churches of Istanbul, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University(in English)
• Byzantine Monuments of Attica, Institute of Byzantine Research, National Hellenic Research Foundation(in English and Greek)
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  • Hellenic History(in English and Greek)
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• Interactive Map of Constantinople, University of Toronto(in English)
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• ORBIS: The Stanford Geospatial Network Model of the Roman World(in English)
• PLEIADES: A community-built gazetteer and graph of ancient places(in English)
• Η Καστροπολιτεία του Μυστρά, Hellenic Ministry of Culture(in Greek)
• LEVANTIA - Social history of the Levant(in English)
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• Suda On Line: Byzantine Lexicography(in English)

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