Pope Alexander VII (Italian:Alessandro VII; 13 February 1599 – 22 May 1667), bornFabio Chigi, was head of theCatholic Church and ruler of thePapal States from 7 April 1655 to his death, in May 1667.[1][2]
Early in his papacy, Alexander, who was seen as an anti-nepotist at the time of his election, lived simply; later, however, he gave jobs to his relatives, who eventually took over his administration. His administration worked to support theJesuits. However, his administration's relations withFrance were strained due to his frictions with French diplomats.
Alexander was interested in architecture and supported various urban projects inRome. He also wrote poetry and patronized artists who expanded the decoration of churches. His theological writings included discussions ofheliocentrism and theImmaculate Conception.
Born inSiena, a member of the illustrious banking family ofChigi, son of Count Flavio Chigi-Ardenghesca (1549–1615),Gonfaloniere,Capitano del Popolo, and wife Laura Marsigli, and a great-grandnephew ofPope Paul V (1605–1621),[3] Fabio Chigi was privately tutored and eventually received doctorates of philosophy, law, and theology from theUniversity of Siena.
Fabio's nephew Antonio created a cardinal by his uncle on 9 April 1657. The appointment was made public on 10 November 1659. He appointed his nephew Giovanni Bichi, Admiral of thePapal Navy.
Chigi was ordained a priest in Rome in December 1634. He was appointedReferendarius utriusque signaturae, which made him a prelate and gave him the right to practice before the Roman courts. On 8 January 1635, Chigi was namedBishop of Nardò in southern Italy and consecrated on 1 July 1635[6] byMiguel Juan Balaguer Camarasa,Bishop of Malta.[7] On 13 May 1652 he was transferred to theBishopric of Imola.[6]
Though expected to take part in the negotiations which led in 1648 to thePeace of Westphalia, Bishop Chigi (and other Catholic delegates) declined to deliberate with persons whom the Catholic Church consideredheretics. Negotiations therefore took place in two cities,Osnabrück andMünster inWestphalia, with intermediaries travelling back and forth between the Protestant and the Catholic delegates. Chigi protested against the Treaty of Westphalia on behalf of the Papacy once the instruments were finally completed.[9][10]Pope Innocent X himself stated that the Peace "is null, void, invalid, unjust, damnable, reprobate, inane, empty of meaning and effect for all time."[11] The Peace ended theThirty Years' War (1618–1648) and established the balance of European power that lasted until theFrench Revolutionary Wars (1792).
When Innocent X died on 7 January 1655, Cardinal Chigi was elected pope after eighty days in theconclave, on 7 April 1655, taking the name of Alexander VII, in honor ofPope Alexander III.[15]
On the morning of his election as he went to celebrate Mass before the final ballot, Chigi was greeted by his friendLuigi Omodei who, knowing that Chigi was soon to be elected, said: "At length that day has come, so desired by me, and so happy for the Church!" Chigi replied to Omodei by recitingVirgil and said: "That day I shall always recollect with grief; with reverence also for the gods so willed it". During the final ballot, Chigi had cast his vote forGiulio Cesare Sacchetti while in the accesso casting it forGiovanni Maria Battista Pallotta. Upon his election, one of the cardinals remarked: "What a singular thing! The Spaniards disinterestedly wished you to be pope; the French wished it, though they had at first excluded you; the young men chose a man already aged, and the Barberini a man who was not their own creature!"[16]
One of his first acts as pope was to orderOlimpia Maidalchini (known popularly as "la papessa" due to her extraordinary influence over Pope Innocent X) to return to her native town of Orvieto.[17] Maidalchini had been a rival of sorts since Chigi's office as Secretary of State commanded much power which Maidalchini hoped to utilize for her own ends while she worked with CardinalDecio Azzolino to try to circumvent Chigi's authority with the hopes of having Chigi either effectively sidelined or replaced.
The conclave believed he was strongly opposed to thenepotism that had been a feature of previous popes. In the first year of his reign, Alexander VII lived simply and forbade his relatives even to visit Rome, but in theconsistory of 24 April 1656, Pope Alexander announced that his brother and nephews would be coming to assist him in Rome. His nephew, CardinalFlavio Chigi assumed the position ofcardinal-nephew. The administration was given largely into the hands of his relatives,[18] and nepotism became entrenched as it had been in the Baroque Papacy. Cardinal Flavio began work on the Villa Chigi-Versaglia at Formello in 1664.[19]
When announcing to the cardinals in 1656 that he would summon his relatives to Rome, the pontiff asked that each cardinal provide his opinion on his suggestion. The cardinals agreed, but attached several conditions to ensure that nepotism did not run too rampant. The pope eventually received his relatives in an audience, however, the meeting was formal and his relatives were required to kneel for the entirety of the audience as the pope informed them of why they had been summoned and what was expected of them.[16]
Fabio Chigi as Papal Nuntius to the Peace of Westphalia negotiations, byAnselm van Hulle (c. 1646) Alexander VII, by Domenico Guidi
A number of pontiffs are renowned for their urban planning in the city of Rome—for example,Pope Julius II andPope Sixtus V—but Alexander VII's numerous urban interventions were not only diverse in scope and scale but demonstrated a consistent planning and architectural vision that the glorification and embellishment of the city, ancient and modern, sacred and secular, should be governed by order and decorum.[20][21]
Central to Alexander's urbanism was the idea ofteatro or urban theatre[22] whereby his urban interventions became the grand settings or showpieces appropriate to the dignity of Rome and the Head of the Catholic Church. Therefore, and although the scales are vastly different, the smallSanta Maria della Pace and its piazza are as much a teatro as the imposing monumental colonnade that formsSt. Peter's Square in front ofSt. Peter's Basilica.
The various urban and architectural projects carried out during Alexander's reign were recorded in engravings byGiovanni Battista Falda and the first volume was published in 1665. The volumes were published byGiovanni Giacomo de Rossi under the titleIl Nuovo Teatro delle fabriche et edificij in prospettiva di Roma moderna sotto il felice pontificato di N.S. Alessandro VII.[23] A rival publication documenting these projects was published by Rossi's cousin Giovanni Battista de Rossi who employed the youngFlemish architectural draughtsmanLieven Cruyl to produce drawings of Rome, 10 of which were published in 1666 under the titleProspectus Locorum Urbis Romae Insignium.[24]
His preferred architect was the sculptor and architectGian Lorenzo Bernini[25] but he also gave architectural commissions to the painter and architectPietro da Cortona. Of the three leading architects of the Roman HighBaroque, onlyFrancesco Borromini fared less well under Alexander; this may be because he thought Borromini's architectural forms wilful but also Borromini could be notoriously difficult. Nonetheless, Alexander's family heraldic emblems of the mons or mountains with stars and oak leaves, adorn Borromini's[26] church ofSant'Ivo alla Sapienza and many other works of his reign.[27]
Before being elected as Pontiff, Chigi served as Inquisitor on the Island of Malta where he resided mostly at theInquisitor's Palace inBirgu (alias Città Vittoriosa). At that timeMalta was a fiefdom of the Knights Hospitallers of the Sovereign Order of Saint John of Jerusalem, Knights of Malta, from which he bought one hundred slaves in 1662 for his naval squadron.[34]
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The conversion of QueenChristina of Sweden (1632–1654) occurred during Alexander VII's reign. After her abdication the queen came to reside in Rome, where she was confirmed in herbaptism by the Pope, in whom she found a generous friend and benefactor, onChristmas Day, 1655. She was described by the Pope as 'a queen without a realm, a Christian without faith, and a woman without shame.'[35] He was also said to have accused her of being 'a woman born of a barbarian, barbarously brought up and living with barbarous thoughts', therefore indicating that their relationship might have been contentious at best.[36]
Shortly after her arrival in Rome, she quickly became the centre of Roman fashion and parties. However, following the pre-Lenten Carnival in 1656, Alexander VII quickly regretted having invited her to Rome since there existed an atmosphere of immorality which was linked to the Carnival. While the pontiff had originally hoped that Christina would become an inspiration for those considering conversion to the faith, he was dismayed that her interests were primarily political, even to the point that she helped plot the conquest of Naples withCardinal Mazarin.[37]
In foreign policy his instincts were not ashumanist or as successful. Alexander VII's pontificate was shadowed by continual friction with Cardinal Mazarin, adviser to and effectivelychief minister ofLouis XIV of France (1643–1715), who had opposed him during the negotiations that led to the Peace of Westphalia and who defended the prerogatives of theGallican Church. During the conclave, Mazarin had been hostile to Chigi's election, but was in the end had been compelled to accept him as a compromise. However, he prevented Louis XIV from sending the usual embassy of obedience to Alexander VII, and, while he lived, foiled the appointment of a French ambassador to Rome, diplomatic affairs being meantime conducted by cardinal protectors, generally personal enemies of the Pope. In 1662, Louis XIV made the equally hostileDuc de Crequi his ambassador. By his abuse of the traditional right of asylum granted to ambassadorial precincts in Rome, Crequi precipitated aquarrel between France and the papacy, which resulted in Alexander VII's temporary loss ofAvignon and his forced acceptance of the humiliatingTreaty of Pisa in 1664.[38]
Alexander VII favoured theJesuits. When theVenetians called for help inCrete against theOttoman Turks, the Pope extracted in return a promise that the Jesuits should be permitted back in Venetian territory, from which they had been expelled in 1606. He also continued to take the Jesuit part in their conflict with theJansenists, whose condemnation he had vigorously supported as advisor toPope Innocent X. The French Jansenists professed that the propositions condemned in 1653 were not in fact to be found inAugustinus, written byCornelius Jansen. Alexander VII confirmed that they were too, by the bullAd sanctam beati Petri sedem (16 October 1656) declaring that five propositions extracted by a group of theologians from theSorbonne out of Jansen's work, mostly concerninggrace and thefallen nature of man, wereheretical, including the proposition according to which to say "thatChrist died, or shed His blood for all men" would be asemipelagian error. He also sent to France his famous "formulary", that was to be signed by all the clergy as a means of detecting and extirpating Jansenism and which inflamed public opinion, leading toBlaise Pascal's defense of Jansenism.
Alexander VII disliked the business of state, preferringliterature andphilosophy; a collection of hisLatin poems appeared at Paris in 1656 under the titlePhilomathi Labores Juveniles. He also encouraged architecture, and the general improvement of Rome, where houses were razed to straighten and widen streets and where he had the opportunity to be a great patron forGian Lorenzo Bernini: the decorations of the church ofSanta Maria del Popolo,titular churches for several of the Chigi cardinals, theScala Regia, theChair of St. Peter inSt. Peter's Basilica. In particular, he sponsored Bernini's construction of the beautiful colonnade inSt. Peter's Square.
According to William Roberts, Alexander VII wrote one of the most authoritative documents related to theheliocentrism issue. However, the document is not about any astronomic model and is not part of theMagisterium Ecclesiae. The Pope published hisIndex Librorum Prohibitorum Alexandri VII Pontificis Maximi jussu editus which presented anew the contents of theIndex of Forbidden Books which had condemned many works related to many different matters: among them were the works of Copernicus and Galileo. He prefaced this with thebullSpeculatores Domus Israel (1592), stating his reasons: "in order that the whole history of each case may be known." 'For this purpose,' the Pontiff stated, 'we have caused the Tridentine and Clementine Indices to be added to this general Index, and also all the relevant decrees up to the present time, that have been issued since the Index of our predecessor Clement, that nothing profitable to the faithful interested in such matters might seem omitted."[39] Among those included were the previous decrees placing various heliocentric works on the Index ("...which we will should be considered as though it were inserted in these presents, together with all, and singular, the things contained therein...") and, according to Roberts, using his Apostolic authority he bound the faithful to its contents ("...and approve with Apostolic authority by the tenor of these presents, and: command and enjoin all persons everywhere to yield this Index a constant and complete obedience...")[40] Thus, for the geocentrists, Alexander turned definitively against the heliocentric view of theSolar System. After Alexander VII's pontificate, theIndex underwent a number of revisions.[41] "In 1758 the general prohibition against works advocating heliocentrism was removed from the Index of prohibited books, although the specific ban on uncensored versions of theDialogue and Copernicus'sDe Revolutionibus remained. All traces of official opposition to heliocentrism by the church disappeared in 1835 when these works were finally dropped from the Index".[42][better source needed] The Index was abolished entirely in 1966.[43][better source needed]
Alexander VII'sApostolic Constitution,Sollicitudo omnium ecclesiarum (8 December 1661),[44] laid out the doctrine of theImmaculate Conception of the Blessed Virgin Mary in terms almost identical to those utilized byPope Pius IX when he issued his infallible definitionIneffabilis Deus. Pius IX cites Alexander VII's bull in his footnote 11.
On 18 March 1666 in a decree issued, Alexander VII issued a correction on various moral matters that expanded upon a decree he had issued previously on 24 September 1665. In his decree, Alexander VII confirmed the authority and rulings from the Council of Trent while advising on matters ranging from sacramental confession, heresy, to proper courtship practices. The pontiff also confirmed the rulings made by predecessors such as Urban VIII in matters that concerned moral teachings.[45][46]Pope Innocent XI later expanded upon some of his points in 1679.
Alexander VII created 38 cardinals in six consistories which includedFlavio Chigi, his nephew in the role ofCardinal-Nephew, while naming Giulio Rospigliosi as a cardinal and whom would eventually succeed him asPope Clement IX. Out of all the cardinals whom he had named, the pope had reserved five of those namesin pectore and announced them at later dates.
Alexander VII reformed the Constitution for theCistercians in thepapal briefIn suprema on 19 April 1666 which effectively ended a dispute that had lasted for decades on the question of reform which had long since divided the Cistercians. The pope also played a role in changes made to theBarnabites and thePiarists (1656). In 1666, he formally approved theCongregation of Jesus and Mary which had been founded by SaintJohn Eudes while in 1655 he had given his approval to theCongregation of the Mission which had been founded by SaintVincent de Paul.
In 1661, the pope forbade the translation of theRoman Missal intoFrench which had been published in 1660 by the priest Joseph de Voisin. With the French episcopacy condemning the bilingual Missal in late 1660, the pontiff ratified this in a papal bull on 12 January 1661.[47] In 1656, he revoked the decree of Innocent X and allowed theChinese rites to be used by the Jesuit missionaries in China. Alexander VII expanded upon this in 1659 when he dispensed the Chinese clergy from having to pray the Divine Office in Latin.[17]
Alexander VII died at age 68 fromkidney failure. His health had initially begun to fail around March, with his ailment consistently causing him great pain. He kept his coffin in his bedroom, and a skull (carved by famed sculptorBernini) on his writing table, because he was always aware that he would someday die. Suddenly taken by a fever on 18 May, he died on 22 May. A seventeenth-century pamphlet credited toAyres, titledA short Account of the Life and Death of Pope Alexander VII, contains many fascinating details about Alexander's passing. According to this pamphlet, Alexander, although bedridden, wanted to celebrate the Passion to ready himself for his impending death. Neither his surgeon nor his confessor was able to persuade him to save his strength. He blessed the large crowd of people onEaster, the last time they would ever see him alive.[49]
A precise and detailed account of the pope's last days is given in theDiary of the principal Master of Ceremonies, Fulvio Servantio, an official eyewitness to all the proceedings.[50]
Short Account of the Life and Death of Pope Alexander VII:[51]
Promoted to the cardinalship eight of those select persons, whom he supposed, for their great worth and labours, bestowed for the good of the Papal See, had merited the advancement to so high dignity.
But his disease increasing, four days after, he was assaulted by a grievous fit, from which he concluded that his sickness was mortal, and not withstanding, it grew more and more violent daily, yet for all this, he had thoughts of performing the long ceremonies of Holy Thursday, to prepare himself for death, as he said, by meditating on the sacred mysteries of the passion of Jesus Christ, and would have executed his intentions in despight of his pains, if his physicians and chyrurgeons, together with his confessor had not persuaded him to the contrary; remonstrating to him the inconveniencies which might arise, from the hard labours which are inseparable from such prolixe ceremonies. And although he was perswaded by them all that time, yet was he resolved with that little strength he had left him (though much broken and extenuated by his disease) on Easter-day upon the Gallery of Monte Cavallo, where this function is used to be performed, with a solemn benediction in Pontificalthus, to bless the people, which there flocked in exceeding great multitudes, being driven there-unto not only out of devotion, but also by a desire of seeing their pastor yet whole and alive. He blessed them, having raised himself up twice according to the custom, without the help of the pontifical seat; and this was the lat time that he saw his flock, or they him.
Ex lastly, be recommends to their care and protection, his Cardinal Nephew, his aged brother, and the rest of his kindred, and himself to their prayers. This being spoken, he lifted up his hands and blessed them, and then their eminencies approached to the bed side with tears in their eyes, and after they had taken pains to comfort him, with great tenderness they kissed his hand, and departed.[52]
At last, they being all departed, and only his familiar friends and ghostly-fathers continuing in the room with him, he altogether applied himself to his devotion, often repeating these words, Cupio disolvi et esse cum Christo ["I desire to be discharged from my debt and to be with Christ"]. And those which assisted him he caused continually to read spiritual books, & divers prayers, and psalms, especially the penitential psalms, &c.
After he had received both the Eucharist and the Extreme Unction, he disposed himself for his Transit, with a marvelous undantedness; and had already even lost his Speech, when one of his religious men standing by exhorted him to do an act of contrition, and to aske God pardon of his sins, he collecting his breath, which was flying away, with a most lanquisting voice, which could hardly be understood, answered Ita ["Yes"]. The same added that he should hope in the mercies of God, who is always ready to shower down his mercies upon a penitent heart; the pope answered with the same weakness of speech, Certe ["Certainly"]. Which were the last words which proceeded out of his mouth.
He was often visited by the cardinals, contrary to the former customs, who were willing to be round about his bed till his end. And on Sunday the 22. of May, about 22. of the clock, he quietly rendred his spirits to his Creator, in the 60 year of his age, and 13 of his pontificate; and the same evening, the usual ceremony being performed by the cardinal lord Chamberlain, the corps were arrayed in the accustomed vestments, put into a litter of crimson velvet open on all sides, compassed round about by the penitentiary fathers, with lighted torches in their hands, accompanied by the guards and light horses, followed by the artillery, and with the Rexe Guard of Curiassiers, being carried to the Vatican, and there the next morning opened, there was found on one part of the lungs, fastned to one of his sides, a touch of a black spot; one of his kidneys wasted, and some carnosities of fleshy kyrnels instead of it, from whence the passage of the urine was hindred; and an ulcer of the reins, which of all his other diseases was the worst: from thence, being embalmed and pontifically appareled, he was carried the next day to the cathedral of St. Peter, and placed in the chapel of the most Holy Sacrament, where was a concourse of an infinite number of people, to kiss his feet, and take from him whatsoever they could lay hands on, to preserve to themselves as holy reliques. Finis
Alexander VII died in 1667 and was memorialised in aspectacular tomb by Bernini. However,Pope Innocent XI ordered that the naked Truth be covered up with a drapery colored in white.[16] It is famous for the skeleton holding a gilded hourglass, just above the doors. He was succeeded byPope Clement IX (1667–1669). As the pope lay dying, he said to the cardinals gathered at his bedside: "We never aspired to the tiara, nor took any steps to reach it. We have employed the moneys of the apostolical chamber solely in the service of the Catholic religion, and the embellishment of Rome and the building of churches. We were a whole year pontiff before we summoned any relative of ours to Rome, and we only at length did so because the Sacred College vanquished our unwillingness. We exhort you to elect a successor qualified to repair any errors we have committed in our pontificate".[16]
^Williams, George L. (1998).Papal Genealogy: The Families and Descendants of the Popes. McFarland & Company. p. 114.
^Note on numbering:Pope Alexander V is now considered an anti-pope. At the time however, this fact was not recognised and so the fifth true Pope Alexander took the official number VI. This caused the true sixth Pope Alexander to take the number VII. This has advanced the numbering of all subsequent Popes Alexander by one. Popes Alexander VI–VIII are really the fifth through seventh popes by that name.
^V. Borg,Fabio Chigi, Apostolic Delegate in Malta, 1634–1639. An edition of his official correspondence (Città del Vaticano: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, 1967).
^Winter, Johanna Maria (1998).Sources Concerning the Hospitallers of St. John in the Netherlands, 14th-18th Centuries. Brill. p. 133.
^abPatritius Gauchat,Hierarchia catholica medii et recentioris aevi Tomus IV, editio altera (Monasterii 1935), p. 257, and note 5.
^Joseph Bergin,Church, Society and Religious Change in France, 1580–1730 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), pp. 396–404.
^Baron, Salo Wittmayer (1969).A Social and Religious History of the Jews: Late Middle Ages and the Era of European Expansion. Vol. 10. Columbia University Press. p. 290.
^Derek Croxton and Anuschka Tischer,The Peace of Westphalia : a historical dictionary (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2002).
^Kalevi Jaakko Holsti,Peace and War: Armed Conflicts and International Order, 1648–1989 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1991), p. 25.
^Oliva Muratore, "Formello, Villa Versaglia,"Methodical Approach to the Restoration of Historic Architecture (ed. Calogero Bellanca) (Firenze: Alinea Editrice, 2011), pp. 123–135.
^Krautheimer, Richard (1985).The Rome of Alexander VII 1655–1667. Princeton University Press.ISBN978-0691040325.
^Full title:Il Nuovo Teatro delle fabriche et edificij in prospettiva di Roma moderna sotto il felice pontificato di N.S. Alessandro VII, (The New Theatre of the building works and edifices of modern Rome under the happy pontificate of Our Lord Alexander VII), published by Giovanni Giacomo de Rossi
^Charles Avery,Bernini: Genius of the Baroque (London: Thames & Hudson, 1997). Franco Mormando,Bernini: His Life and His Rome (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011).
^Anthony Blunt,Borromini (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press 1979), esp. pp. 111 ff.
^Alexander’s forebear,Agostino Chigi, was banker to Julius II, who granted Agostino the right to a coat-of-arms which quartered the oak, the heraldic emblem of thedella Rovere, Julius’s family, with his own family's arms.
^SeeKrautheimer, R.; Jones, R. B. S. (1975). "The Diary of Alexander VII, notes on Art, Artists and Buildings".Römisches Jahrbuch für Kunstgeschichte. Vol. 15.ISBN978-3803045034.
^Dorothy Metzger Habel,"When All of Rome was Under Construction": The Building Process in Baroque Rome (University Park, Pa.: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2013), pp. 85–132.
^Joannes Baptista Gattico,Acta selecta caeremonialia sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae, ex variis mss. codicibus et diariis saeculi xv. xvi. xvii.(in Latin) Tomus I (Romae: Bsrbierini 1753), pp. 468-471.
^A brief account of the pope's speech, and the cardinals' reply, is given in a manuscript published by: Hugo Laemmer,Zur Kirchensgeschichte des sechszehnten und siebenzehnten Jahrhunderts(in German and Latin) (Freiburg im Breisgau: Herder 1863), pp. 53-54.
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