Pontianak Malay
Bahase Melayu Pontianak بهاس ملايو ڤونتيانق
Pronunciation	[baˈha.səmə.la.jupon.ti.ˈa.naʔ]
Native to	Indonesia (West Kalimantan)
Region	Pontianak,Kubu Raya andMempawah
Ethnicity	Pontianak Malays
Native speakers	(undated figure of 280,000)[1]
Language family	Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian Malayo-Sumbawan Malayic Pontianak Malay
Writing system	Latin (Indonesian alphabet) Jawi
Language codes
ISO 639-3	(covered byzlm)
Linguist List	zlm-rit
Glottolog	None
Regencies and cities in West Kalimantan where Pontianak Malay is spoken by the majority of the population
This article containsIPA phonetic symbols. Without properrendering support, you may seequestion marks, boxes, or other symbols instead ofUnicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, seeHelp:IPA.

Pontianak Malay (Pontianak Malay:Bahase Melayu Pontianak,Jawi: بهاس ملايو ڤونتيانق) is aMalayic language primarily spoken by theMalay people inPontianak and the surrounding areas inWest Kalimantan,Indonesia. It is also widely spoken in neighboring regencies, including Kubu Raya and Mempawah, both of which were historically part of the now-dissolved Pontianak Regency.^[2] Pontianak Malay was also the primary language of thePontianak Sultanate, a Malay state that once governed the area now known as Pontianak.^[3] In these regions, Pontianak Malay is not limited to being spoken exclusively by the Malay community. It functions as alingua franca alongside standardIndonesian, enabling communication among the diverse ethnic groups in the area. However, the use of Pontianak Malay faces a slight threat as many speakers are gradually shifting to Indonesian, the national language.^[4]

Pontianak Malay is more closely related to the Malay dialects spoken inPeninsular Malaysia and theRiau Islands than to other Bornean Malay dialects, such asSambas Malay, orSarawak Malay, spoken inSarawak,Malaysia.^[5] Elements fromJohor–Riau Malay,Chinese, standardIndonesian, and variousDayak languages as well as manylocalism can be seen in the language, reflecting the various ethnic origins residing in the city.^[6] Although Pontianak is relatively homogeneous, some regional dialects are notable. The Malay varieties spoken inPontianak,Kubu Raya, andMempawah differ slightly from each other, especially in terms of vocabulary and phonology.^[6]

Pontianak Malay is one of the two major varieties ofMalayic languages spoken inWest Kalimantan, the other beingSambas Malay.^[7] Speakers of Malayic languages are spread fromBrunei, Indonesia,Malaysia,Singapore,Southern Thailand, to the southernmost part of thePhilippines. Malay is a member of theAustronesian family of languages, which includes languages fromTaiwan,Southeast Asia, and thePacific Ocean, with a smaller number in continentalAsia.Malagasy, a geographic outlier spoken inMadagascar in theIndian Ocean, is also a member of this language family. Although these languages are not necessarilymutually intelligible to any extent, their similarities are often quite apparent. In more conservative languages like Malay, many roots have come with relatively little change from their common ancestor,Proto-Austronesian. There are manycognates found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.^[8]

Pontianak Malay shows more similarity withJohor–Riau Malay spoken inPeninsular Malaysia and theRiau Islands as compared to other Malay dialects spoken in Borneo such asSambas Malay,Sarawak Malay, andBrunei Malay.^[5] Along withBerau Malay,Banjarese, andKutainese, these languages are often classified as Coastal Borneo languages.^[9] The differences with Pontianak Malay and Sambas Malay mostly lies in vocabulary and phonology. For example, the differences between Pontianak Malay and Sambas Malay are particularly evident when comparing the two vowels /e/, which are pronounced differently by speakers of Sambas Malay and Pontianak Malay. In the same syllable position, the vowel /e/ in Pontianak Malay is pronounced as [ə], while in Sambas Malay, it is pronounced as [e].^[10]

Pontianak Malay is spoken in the lowerKapuas River Valley, where its waters flow into theSouth China Sea. Based on the flow of the Kapuas River Valley, the upstream geography of Pontianak Malay speakers borders theTayan Malay andSanggau Malay languages. Meanwhile, on the western coastal area ofBorneo, Pontianak Malay borders theSambas Malay language. In the administrative context ofWest Kalimantan, the distribution of Pontianak Malay is also quite extensive. Administratively, Pontianak Malay is spoken in three regencies/cities:Mempawah,Kubu Raya, and the city ofPontianak. In these three administrative regions, speakers use Pontianak Malay as alingua franca in competition withIndonesian.^[2]

In daily interactions, the majority of Pontianak’s residents use Malay. For the Malay people of Pontianak, Pontianak Malay is viewed as an expression of self-identity, a source of pride, and a vital means of preserving local culture and heritage.^[11][12] Interestingly, almost all inhabitants of Pontianak, regardless of their ethnic background—such asJavanese,Dayak,Madurese,Bugis, other migrant ethnic groups, and even the Malay community itself—use Pontianak Malay in their daily interactions.^[13] Like otherregional languages in Indonesia, Pontianak Malay is generally regarded as an informal language, primarily used in casual or semi-formal settings such as family gatherings, with friends, or in the marketplace. In contrast, Indonesian is typically used in official or formal contexts, such as in offices and schools.^[14]Code-switching andcode-mixing between Pontianak Malay, standard Indonesian and other regional languages are common.^[15]

While the use of Pontianak Malay is not yet under significant threat, many traditional Pontianak Malay terms are being abandoned by its speakers and replaced with Indonesian terms, particularly among the younger generation.^[15] In response, efforts are being made to preserve and promote the use of Pontianak Malay. For instance, the Pontianak city government frequently promotespantun, a traditional Malay poetic form, on their social media platforms.^[16] Furthermore, in 2020, Pontianak Malay was officially recognized as an "Intangible Cultural Heritage of Indonesia" (Warisan Budaya Tak Benda; WBTB), with registration number 202001197.^[17][18][19]

Pontianak Malay, like many otherregional languages in Indonesia, lacks a standardized phonological system. Nevertheless, many of the phonological system designed for Pontianak Malay is loosely based on standardIndonesian orthography, especially the system created by the IndonesianMinistry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology.

The pronunciation system in Pontianak Malay stresses the usage of the /ə/, which makes it more similar toJohor–Riau Malay compared to other Coastal Bornean Malay dialects and the standardIndonesian language. Another notable feature of the accent is thevoiced velar fricative in pronouncing the letterR which similarly used inSarawakian Malay. In addition, the spokeninterjection ofBah is widely used in Pontianak Malay , corresponding to the usage of language observed throughout coastal Borneo.^[20]

Pontianak Malay features sixvowels: /i, e, ə, a, o, u/. Like Johor-Riau Malay, Pontianak Malay is classified as a "schwa-variety" language, characterized by the occurrence of the phonetic schwa [ə] as anallophone of /a/ in word-final open syllables.^[21][22]

Notes:

• In writing,/e/ and/ə/ are both represented as⟨e⟩.

Pontianak Malay features nineteen primaryconsonants: /p, t, t͡ʃ, k, ʔ, b, d, d͡ʒ, g, m, n, ɲ, ŋ, s, h, ɣ, l, w, j/. Additionally, there are also six additional consonants—/f, ɕ, x, v, z, r/—which appear in borrowed words fromArabic andIndonesian. Unlike many other Malay varieties, Pontianak Malay lacks a trill /r/ as a primary consonant. Instead, it employs a voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ in all positions where /r/ is typically expected. At the end of a word, a glottal stop /ʔ/ may replace /r/.^[22]

Notes:

• In writing, the following phonemes are represented as thus:
  • /ŋ/ is⟨ng⟩
  • /ɲ/ is⟨ny⟩
  • /t͡ʃ/ is⟨c⟩
  • /d͡ʒ/ is⟨j⟩
  • /ʔ/ is⟨k⟩
  • /j/ is⟨y⟩
  • /ɣ/ is⟨r⟩

In Pontianak Malay, there are only two knowndiphthongs: /au/ and /ai/, which are pronounced as [aw], and [ay], respectively.^[2] Examples of the usage of these diphthongs are shown below:

• /au/: /məɣantaw/ 'to migrate'
• /ai/: /suŋay/: 'river'

Along withIndonesian,standard Malay, and otherMalayic languages, the word order in Pontianak Malay is typicallysubject-verb-object (SVO). While there are notable exceptions, the grammar structure of Pontianak Malay shares many similarities with Indonesian and Standard Malay.

Affixation, the process of adding affixes, involves attaching an affix to a base word, whether the base is simple or complex, to form a new word. In Pontianak Malay, there are several types of affixes, includingprefixes,suffixes, andcircumfixes.^[23]

The table below presents some examples of affixes used in Pontianak Malay, along with their meanings and examples:

In Pontianak Malay, wordreduplication serves only an inflectional function, such as forming plurals, indicating frequentative actions, or adding emphasis. Reduplication does not change the word class of the base form. For instance, if the reduplicated form is a noun, the base form is also a noun, and vice versa.^[32] The meaning of reduplication depends on the word class of the root word.

If the base form is a noun, its reduplication conveys the meaning of "plurality" or adds emphasis.^[33] For example:

• budak-budak 'many children'
• gunong-gunong 'mountains'
• tulang-tulang dimakan 'even the bones are being eaten'
• beling-beling ditinjak 'even he dares to step on the glass'

If the base form is a verb, reduplication indicates that the action is performed leisurely and over an extended period.^[33] For example:

• makan-makan 'to eat together for a while'
• minom-minom 'to drink together for a while'
• dudok-dudok 'to sit together for a while'

If the base form is an adjective, reduplication conveys that the objects possessing the described quality are numerous.^[33] For example:

• kecik-kecik 'many small things'
• cantik-cantik 'many pretty things'
• besak-besak 'many big things'

When combined with the circumfixsə-...-ɲa, reduplication conveys the meaning ofalthough oreven though. In this context, the circumfixsə-...-ɲa serves to indicate comparison.^[33] Another meaning of reduplication combined with affixes is to expressindication oremphasis. This can highlight a particular quality, state, or action depending on the affix and the base form.^[34] For example:

• sejahat-jahatnye abang kite masih gamok nguros kite 'although he is cruel, our older brother still wants to take care of us'
• sekurang-kurangnye masih sampai sebulan 'although it is bad at least it will last for a month'
• tegile-gile 'to be crazy about'
• maok-maokan 'really want'

In Pontianak Malay,nouns can be divided into two categories: basic nouns and derived nouns.

The morphological characteristic of basic nouns in Pontianak Malay is that they are typically formed from a single free morpheme. This means that basic nouns do not require affixation or combination with other morphemes to convey a complete meaning.^[35] For example:

• derian 'durian'
• budak 'child'
• tembok 'wall'

Derived nouns can be categorized into three subtypes: affixed nouns, reduplicated nouns and compound nouns. Nouns can be derived by adding affixes, including prefixes, suffixes, and circumfixes, to other word classes such as adjectives and verbs.^[36] Some common affixes used to form nouns includepə-,kə-,-an,pən-,pə-...-an, andkə-...-an. Examples of their usage are provided below:

• pə- + manas 'angry' →pemanas 'someone who likes to be angry'
• kə- + tue 'old' →ketue 'chief/head'
• pən- + gosok 'to brush' →penggosok 'brush (object)'

The base form of reduplicated nouns can either be a root word or an affixed word. In Pontianak Malay, there are no other types of reduplicated nouns besides full reduplication.^[37] For example:

• peggawe-peggawe 'village chiefs'

Examples of compound nouns are:

• buah rambot 'rambutan'
• cangkok manges 'katuk leaf'

Below are some examples of nouns used in sentences:

• budak nang cantek tutunang Udin 'that beautiful child is Udin's girlfriend'
• ambekkan akuslawar nang baru 'get me a new pants'
• budak nang kuros tuanak siape? 'whose child is that skinny child?'

In Pontianak Malay,verbs can be analyzed from both a morphological perspective and a word group (or syntactic) perspective.^[38] In Pontianak Malay, verbs are classified into two types based on their form: base verbs and derived verbs. In addition to classification based on form, Pontianak Malay verbs are also distinguished into transitive, intransitive, active verbs, passive verbs, reciprocal verbs, and reflexive verbs.^[39]

Base verb refers to a verb that is formed by a single free morpheme, meaning it is not derived from any other word or affix. It stands alone as the root form of the verb. For example:

• dudok 'to sit'
• mati 'to die'
• pegi 'to go'
• makan 'to eat'

In terms of formation, derived verbs in Pontianak Malay are classified into three types: affixed verbs, reduplicated verbs, and compound verbs. Affixed verbs are base verbs that are modified by adding affixes to form new word forms.^[40] For example:

• di- +gulay 'vegetable' →digulay 'to add vegetable'
• bə- + laki 'male' →belaki 'to have a husband'
• kecik 'small' +-kan →kecikkan 'to make something smaller'
• kə- + payah 'tired' +-an → kepayahan 'to feel tired'

Reduplicated verbs refer to verbs that consist of repeated words, whether they are base words or affixed words. These verbs are formed by reduplicating the base form or the affixed form of the verb.^[40] Meanwhile, compound verbs refer to verbs formed by the combination of two words or more. For example:

• ngolok-ngolok 'to tease repeatedly'
• pulang balek 'to go back and forth repeatedly'
• kulu kilek 'to and from'
• bejual beli 'buy and sell'

In Pontianak Malay,adjectives, like nouns and verbs, are categorized based on their forms into basic adjectives and derived adjectives. Derived adjectives are further classified into three types according to their formation processes: affixed adjectives, reduplicated adjectives and compound adjectives.^[41]

Base adjective is an adjective that consists solely of a single free morpheme. For example:

• besak 'big'
• manas 'angry'
• sejok 'cold'
• bagos 'good'

Affixed adjectives are typically formed by attaching the circumfixsə-...-ə to base words.^[41] For example:

• sə- + besak 'big'→ sebesak-besake 'as big as possible'
• sə- + maok 'to want'→ semaok-maoke 'as one pleases'
• sə- + panday 'clever'→ sepanday-pandaye 'as clever as possible'

Reduplicated adjectives refer to base adjectives that are repeated, or in other words, adjectives consisting of a free morpheme. In Pontianak Malay, there is only one type of reduplicated adjective, which is the total or symmetric reduplication.^[41] For example:

• bujor-bujor 'straight-straight'
• jahat-jahat 'bad-bad'
• cantik-cantik 'pretty-pretty'

A compound adjective is an adjective formed by combining two or more base words.^[42] For example:

• panday akal 'quick-witted'
• makan ati 'hurt emotionally'
• besak ati 'proud'

Function words refer to words that do not belong to any of the major categories, such as nouns, adjectives, or verbs. Examples include prepositions and conjunctions. In Pontianak Malay, function words can be classified as either monovalent or ambivalent. Monovalent function words primarily serve to expand the sentence, while ambivalent function words have a dual role: in addition to functioning as monovalent words, they can also serve as other types of words, either by forming minimal sentences or undergoing form changes.^[42] Examples of monovalent function words in Pontianak Malay arenang 'with/and',yang 'which/who' andmemang 'indeed'. The use of these words are shown below:

• akunang die tu masih pupuan 'he and I are still cousins'
• yang bejalan penyabes datok aku 'the person who is walking at the back is my grandpa'
• soal nulis arab itumemang pendekar die 'he is indeed the best in writing in Arabic'

Personal pronouns are words that can replace individuals. In Pontianak Malay, there are three types of personal pronouns: first-person pronouns, which include both singular and plural forms; second-person pronouns; and third-person pronouns, both of which only have a singular form.^[43] The table below presents examples of personal pronouns used in Pontianak Malay:

From the table above, it can be seen that for the plural second-person pronoun, the singular form of the second-person pronoun is combined with the wordsemue 'all', while for the plural third-person pronoun, the singular form of the third-person pronoun is also used.^[43]

What is meant by an interrogative pronoun is a question word that asks about things, people, or situations that can replace the position of an object. Examples of interrogative pronouns used in Pontianak Malay are: /siapə/ 'who', /apəyak/ 'anything', and /manə/ 'where'.^[44] Here are examples of how these interrogative pronouns are used:

• siape besalah diukom 'whoever is guilty will be punished'
• apeyak dimakan 'whatever is eaten'
• mane nang kau maok? ambiklah 'which one do you want? take it'

In Pontianak Malay, the demonstrative pronounsitu 'that' andini 'this' are typically placed at the beginning of a sentence and serve as the subject.^[45] Examples of its usage are shown below:

• itu hak kau 'that is yours'
• ini mahal 'this is expensive'

Pontianak Malay is influenced by other languages due to the region's heterogeneous population. Some words in Pontianak Malay are absorbed from Dayak languages, resulting from interethnic communication between the nativeDayak ofBorneo and theMalay people living in and around Pontianak.^[6] Examples of loanwords in Pontianak Malay absorbed from Dayak arekungkong 'necklace' andjontot 'pig'. There are also influences from foreign languages, such asArabic, particularly in religious terms, as well asDutch. Like otherregional languages in Indonesia, Pontianak Malay has absorbed a significant number of loanwords fromIndonesian, to the point where many local terms in Pontianak Malay have been replaced by their Indonesian equivalents.^[15]

Below are examples of commonly used Pontianak Malay vocabulary along with their Indonesian and English translations:

Historically, like many other Malayic languages, Pontianak Malay was written in theJawi script—a modifiedArabic script tailored to the Malay language—locally known asArab-Melayu 'Arab Malay' orPegon.^[46] The adoption of the Jawi script into Pontianak Malay coincided with thespread of Islam in Indonesia, influenced by the rise of theMalacca Sultanate in the15th and16th centuries and the establishment of thePontianak Sultanate and other Malay kingdoms in the region.^[47] In the past, the Jawi script played a significant role in the daily life of the Pontianak people, being used for writing manuscripts,^[48] inscriptions,^[49] medicinal recipes,^[50] and royal correspondence, including letters sent by the Sultan of Pontianak to other kingdoms and empires.^[51][52]

The use of the Jawi script in Pontianak, as well as other parts ofIndonesia, declined significantly following the introduction of theLatin script by Europeans during thecolonial era. The colonial powers, particularly theDutch, promoted the Latin alphabet as part of their efforts to standardize administration, education, and communication across the archipelago. As a result, the Latin script gradually replaced indigenous scripts like Jawi, which had been used for writing Malay and local languages, including in religious contexts such as Islamic texts. This transition was further accelerated by the spread of European education and the increasing dominance of European languages in official and public life. Over time, the use of Jawi diminished, particularly in urban centers, while the Latin script became the standard for written communication across Indonesia.^[53]

Currently, there have been several efforts to revitalize the use of the Jawi script in Pontianak. These initiatives include teaching students inpesantren (Islamic boarding schools) to conductQuranic recitations using the Jawi script, ensuring the continuity of this traditional form of writing in religious practices. Additionally, efforts are being made to reintroduce the Jawi script in modern contexts, such as through the publication of magazines and other materials written in Jawi.^[54]

• Malay language
• Sambas Malay
• Sarawak Malay

• Mecer, A.R.; Azharie, Arief; Petemus, Hanye; Lansau, D. (1983).Kedudukan dan fungsi bahasa Melayu Pontianak [The Position and Function of the Pontianak Malay Language](PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Language Development and Cultivation Center, Department of Education and Culture.
• Kamal, Mustafa; G.H., Tri Manomo; Raz, Asmadi M.T.; Ulfah, Maria (1986).Morfologi dan Sintaksis Bahasa Pontianak [Morphology and Syntax of the Pontianak Language](PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Language Development and Cultivation Center, Department of Education and Culture.
• Martina; Novianti, Evi; Damayanti, Wahyu (2005).Interferensi Dialek Melayu Pontianak Terhadap Bahasa Indonesia [The Interference of the Pontianak Malay dialect on Indonesian](PDF) (in Indonesian). Pontianak: Language Development and Cultivation Center, Department of Education and Culture.ISBN 979-685-573-9.
• Astar, Hidayatul (2002).Kosakata Dasar Swadesh di Kotamadya Pontianak dan Kabupaten Pontianak [Swadesh list of Basic Vocabulary in Pontianak City and Pontianak Regency](PDF) (in Indonesian). Jakarta: Language Development and Cultivation Center, Department of Education and Culture.ISBN 979-685-2160.

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