Pong is a 1972sports video game developed and published byAtari, Inc. forarcades. It was created byAllan Alcorn as a training exercise assigned to him by Atari co-founderNolan Bushnell. Bushnell and Atari co-founderTed Dabney were so surprised by the quality of Alcorn's work that they decided to manufacture the game. Bushnell based the game's concept on an electronic ping-pong game included on theMagnavox Odyssey, the firsthome video game console; in response,Magnavox later sued Atari for patent infringement.
Pong was the first commercially successful video game,[4] helping to establish thevideo game industry along with the Magnavox Odyssey. Soon after its release, several companies began producing games that closely mimicked its gameplay. Eventually, Atari's competitors released new types of video games that deviated fromPong's original format to varying degrees; this, in turn, led Atari to encourage its staff to move beyondPong and produce more innovative games themselves.
Atari released several sequels toPong that built upon the original's gameplay by adding new features. During the 1975 Christmas season, Atari released a home version ofPong exclusively throughSears retail stores. The home version was also a commercial success and led to numerous clones. The game was remade on numerous home and portable platforms following its release.Pong is considered to be one of the most culturally significant andgreatest video games of all time, and is part of the permanent collection of theSmithsonian Institution inWashington, D.C.
The two paddles return the ball back and forth. The score is displayed at the top of the screen.
Pong is atwo-dimensionalsports game that simulatestable tennis. The player controls an in-game paddle by moving it vertically across the left or right side of the screen. They can compete against another player controlling a second paddle on the opposing side. Players use the paddles to hit a ball back and forth. The goal is for each player to reach eleven points before the opponent; points are earned when one fails to return the ball to the other.[5][6][7]
Atari engineerAllan Alcorn designed and builtPong as a training exercise.
Pong was the first game developed byAtari.[8][9] In 1971, Bushnell and Dabney founded Syzygy Engineering to develop the concept of a standalone computer system with a monitor and attaching a coin slot to it to play games on. Drawing inspiration fromSpacewar!, the duo createdComputer Space.[10] As the game did not fare well commercially, Bushnell decided to form a company to produce more games by licensing ideas to other companies. The first contract was withBally Manufacturing Corporation for a pinball game and a video game that Bushnell told Bally would have a hockey theme.[11] Soon after the founding, Bushnell hiredAllan Alcorn because of his experience with electrical engineering and computer science; Bushnell and Dabney also had previously worked with him atAmpex. Prior to working at Atari, Alcorn had no experience with video games.[12]
To acclimate Alcorn to creating games, Bushnell gave him a project secretly meant to be a warm-up exercise.[12][13] Bushnell told Alcorn that he had a contract withGeneral Electric for a product, and asked Alcorn to create a simple game with one moving spot, two paddles, and digits for score keeping.[12] In 2011, Bushnell stated that the game was inspired by previous versions of electronic tennis he had played before; Bushnell played a version on aPDP-1 computer in 1964 while attending college.[14] However, Alcorn has claimed it was in direct response to Bushnell's viewing of theMagnavox Odyssey's Tennis game.[12] In May 1972, Bushnell had visited theMagnavox Profit Caravan inBurlingame, California where he played the Magnavox Odyssey demonstration, specifically the table tennis game.[15][16] Though he thought the game lacked quality, seeing it prompted Bushnell to assign the project to Alcorn.[14]
Alcorn first examined Bushnell's schematics forComputer Space, but found them to be illegible. He went on to create his own designs based on his knowledge oftransistor–transistor logic (TTL) and Bushnell's game. Feeling the basic game was too boring, Alcorn added features to give the game more appeal. He divided the paddle into eight segments to change the ball's angle of return. For example, the center segments return the ball at a 90° angle in relation to the paddle, while the outer segments return the ball at smaller angles. He also made the ball accelerate the longer it remained in play; missing the ball reset the speed.[7] Another feature was that the in-game paddles were unable to reach the top of the screen. This was caused by a simple circuit that had an inherent defect. Instead of dedicating time to fixing the defect, Alcorn decided it gave the game more difficulty and helped limit the time the game could be played; he imagined two skilled players being able to play forever otherwise.[12]
Three months into development, Bushnell told Alcorn he wanted the game to feature realistic sound effects and a roaring crowd.[12][17] Dabney wanted the game to "boo" and "hiss" when a player lost a round. Alcorn had limited space available for the necessary electronics and was unaware of how to create such sounds withdigital circuits. After inspecting thesync generator, he discovered that it could generate different tones and used those for the game's sound effects.[7][12] To construct the prototype, Alcorn purchased a $75Hitachiblack-and-white television set from a local store, placed it into a 4-foot (1.2 m) woodencabinet, and soldered the wires into boards to create the necessary circuitry. The prototype impressed Bushnell and Dabney so much that they felt it could be a profitable product and decided to test its marketability.[7]
ThePong prototype that was used in the tavern
In August 1972, Bushnell and Alcorn installed thePong prototype at a local bar, Andy Capp's Tavern.[18][19][20][21] They selected the bar because of their good working relation with the bar's owner and manager, Bill Gaddis;[22] Atari supplied pinball machines to Gaddis.[9] Bushnell and Alcorn placed the prototype on one of the tables near the other entertainment machines: a jukebox, pinball machines, andComputer Space. The game was well received the first night and its popularity continued to grow over the next one and a half weeks. Bushnell then went on a business trip to Chicago to demonstratePong to executives atBally andMidway Manufacturing;[22] he intended to usePong to fulfill his contract with Bally.[7][8] A few days later, the prototype began exhibiting technical issues and Gaddis contacted Alcorn to fix it. Upon inspecting the machine, Alcorn discovered that the problem was due to the coin mechanism overflowing with quarters.[22]
The former site of Andy Capp's Tavern in 2023, which was replaced by the Rooster T. Feathers comedy club in 1984[23]
After hearing about the game's success, Bushnell decided there would be more profit for Atari to manufacture the game rather than license it. Bushnell had difficulty finding financial backing forPong; banks viewed it as a variant of pinball, which at the time the general public associated with the Mafia.[citation needed] Atari eventually obtained aline of credit fromWells Fargo that it used to expand its facilities to house an assembly line.[24] The company announcedPong on 29 November 1972.[25][26] Management sought assembly workers at the local unemployment office, but was unable to keep up with demand. The first arcade cabinets produced were assembled very slowly, about ten machines a day, many of which failed quality testing. Atari eventually streamlined the process and began producing the game in greater quantities.[24] By 1973, they began shippingPong to other countries with the aid of foreign partners.[27]
In Japan,Pong was officially released in November 1973 by Atari Japan, which would later be sold toNamco.[1] However,Pong had been beaten to the market by two JapanesePong clones released in July 1973:Sega'sPong Tron andTaito'sElepong.[28]
Atari'sHome Pong console, released throughSears in 1975
After the success ofPong, Bushnell pushed his employees to create new products.[8][29] A newelectronic technology, thelarge-scale integration (LSI) chip, had recently become available, which Bushnell believed would "allow pioneering in new" game concepts. Atari began working on the reduction ofPong from a large arcadeprinted circuit board (PCB) down to a small LSI chip for use in a home system. The initial development cost for a game on a single LSI chip was expensive, costing around$50,000 (equivalent to $388,000 in 2024), but once the chip was developed, it became significantly cheaper tomass-produce the game as well as more difficult toreverse-engineer.[30]
In 1974, Atari engineer Harold Lee proposed a home version ofPong that would connect to a television:Home Pong. The system began development under the codenameDarlene, named after an employee at Atari. Alcorn worked with Lee to develop the designs and prototype and based them on the same digital technology used in their arcade games. The two worked in shifts to save time and money; Lee worked on the design's logic during the day, while Alcorndebugged the designs in the evenings. After the designs were approved, fellow Atari engineer Bob Brown assisted Alcorn and Lee in building a prototype. The prototype consisted of a device attached to a wooden pedestal containing over a hundred wires, which would eventually be replaced with asingle chip designed by Alcorn and Lee; the chip had yet to be tested and built before the prototype was constructed. The chip was finished in the latter half of 1974, and was, at the time, the highest-performing chip used in aconsumer product.[29]
Bushnell and Gene Lipkin, Atari's vice-president of sales, approached toy and electronic retailers to sellHome Pong, but were rejected. Retailers felt the product was too expensive and would not interest consumers.[31] Bushnell contactedSears after coming across aMagnavox Odyssey advertisement in the sporting goods section of its catalog. Atari staff (including Bushnell and Lipkin) discussed the game with a representative, Tom Quinn, who expressed enthusiasm and offered the company an exclusive deal. Believing they could find more favorable terms elsewhere, Atari's executives declined and continued to pursue toy retailers. In January 1975, Atari staff set up aHome Pong booth at the American Toy Fair (atrade fair) inNew York City, but was unsuccessful in soliciting orders due to high price of the unit.[32]
While at the show, they met Quinn again, and, a few days later, set up a meeting with him to obtain a sales order. In order to gain approval from the Sporting Goods department, Quinn suggested Atari demonstrate the game to executives in Chicago. Alcorn and Lipkin traveled to theSears Tower and, despite a technical complication in connection with an antenna on top of the building which broadcast on the same channel as the game, obtained approval. Bushnell told Quinn he could produce 75,000 units in time for theChristmas season; however, Quinn requested double the amount. Though Bushnell knew Atari lacked the capacity to manufacture 150,000 units, he agreed.[29] Atari acquired a new factory through funding obtained byventure capitalistDon Valentine. Supervised by Jimm Tubb, the factory fulfilled the Sears order.[33] The first units manufactured, branded with Sears' "Tele-Games" name, started to sell around the end of October[3] to mid November 1975[34] with a 1-year warranty for $98.95 and an additional $7.95 for the optional AC adapter.[35] Atari later released a version under its own brand in 1976.[36]
In April 1974, Magnavox filed suit against Atari, Allied Leisure,Bally Midway andChicago Dynamics.[37] Magnavox argued that Atari had infringed on Sanders Associates' patents relating both to the concept of TV games generally and to the interaction of player and machine-controlled objects rendered on a screen and presented detailed records Ralph Baer kept of the Odyssey's design process dating back to 1966. Other documents included depositions from witnesses and a signed guest book that demonstrated Bushnell had played the Odyssey's table tennis game prior to releasingPong.[38][39] In response to claims that he saw the Odyssey, Bushnell later stated that, "The fact is that I absolutely did see the Odyssey game and I didn't think it was very clever."[40]
After considering his options, Bushnell decided to settle with Magnavox out of court in June 1976. Bushnell's lawyer felt they could win; however, he estimated legal costs of US$1.5 million, which would have exceeded Atari's funds. Magnavox offered Atari an agreement to become a licensee for US$1.5 million payable in eight installments. In addition, Magnavox obtained the right to full information on Atari products publicly announced or released over the next year.[38][39] Magnavox continued to pursue legal action against the other companies, and proceedings began shortly after Atari's settlement. The first case took place at thedistrict court in Chicago, with Judge John Grady presiding. Magnavox won the suit against the remaining defendants.[38][39][41] Atari may have delayed the announcement of theAtari 2600 by a few months to avoid disclosing information about the system under the settlement agreement.[39][42]
DedicatedPong consoles made their way to various countries, like the SovietTurnir.
ThePong arcade games manufactured by Atari were a great success. The prototype was well received by Andy Capp's Tavern patrons; people came to the bar solely to play the game.[8][22] Following its release,Pong consistently earned four times more revenue than other coin-operated machines.[43] Bushnell estimated that the game earned US$35–40 per day (i.e.140–160 plays daily per console at $0.25 per play), which he described as nothing he'd ever seen before in the coin-operated entertainment industry at the time.[14] The game's earning power resulted in an increase in the number of orders Atari received. This provided Atari with a steady source of income; the company sold the machines at three times thecost of production. By 1973, the company had filled 2,500 orders, and at the end of 1974, sold more than 8,000 units.[43] The arcade cabinets have since become collector's items, withcocktail cabinets being the rarest.[44] Soon after the game's successful testing at Andy Capp's Tavern, other companies began visiting the bar to inspect it. Similar games appeared on the market three months later, produced by companies like Ramtek andNutting Associates.[45] Atari could do little against the competitors as they had not initially filed for patents on thesolid state technology used in the game. When the company did file for patents, complications delayed the process. As a result, the market consisted primarily of "Pong clones"; author Steven Kent estimated that Atari had produced less than a third of the machines.[46] Bushnell referred to the competitors as "Jackals" because he felt they had an unfair advantage. His solution to competing against them was to produce more innovative games and concepts.[45][46]
Home Pong was an instant success following its limited 1975 release through Sears; around 150,000 units were sold that holiday season.[47][48] The game became Sears' most successful product at the time, which earned Atari a Sears Quality Excellence Award.[48] Atari's own version sold an additional 50,000 units.[49] Similar to the arcade version, several companies released clones to capitalize on the home console's success, many of which continued to produce new consoles and video games. Magnavox re-released their Odyssey system with simplified hardware and new features and, later, released updated versions.Coleco entered the video game market with theirTelstar console; it features threePong variants and was also succeeded by newer models.[47] The dedicatedPong consoles and the numerous clones have since become varying levels of rare; Atari'sPong consoles are common, while APF Electronics'TV Fun consoles are moderately rare.[50] Prices among collectors, however, vary with rarity; the Sears Tele-Games versions are often cheaper than those with the Atari brand.[47]
Several publications considerPong the game that launched thevideo game industry as a lucrative enterprise.[13][36][51] Video game author David Ellis sees the game as the cornerstone of the video game industry's success, and called the arcade game "one of the most historically significant" titles.[8][44] Kent attributes the "arcade phenomenon" toPong and Atari's games that followed it, and considers the release of the home version the successful beginning of homevideo game consoles.[45][48] Bill Loguidice and Matt Barton ofGamasutra referred to the game's release as the start of a new entertainment medium, and commented that its simple, intuitive gameplay made it a success.[36] In 1995,Flux magazine ranked the game 56th on their "Top 100 Video Games."[52] In 1996Next Generation named it one of the "Top 100 Games of All Time", recounting that "Next Generation staff ignor[ed] hundreds of thousands of dollars of 32-bit software to playPong for hours when the Genesis version was released."[53] In 1999,Next Generation listedPong as number 34 on their "Top 50 Games of All Time", commenting that, "Despite, or perhaps because of, its simplicity,Pong is the ultimate two-player challenge – a test of reaction times and very simple strategy stripped down to its barest essentials."[54]Entertainment Weekly namedPong one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013.[55] Many of the companies that produced their own versions ofPong eventually became well known within the industry.Nintendo entered the video game market with clones ofHome Pong. The revenue generated from them—two systems sold over a million units combined—helped the company survive a difficult financial time, and spurred them to pursue video games further.[56] In 2015,The Strong National Museum of Play inductedPong to itsWorld Video Game Hall of Fame.[57]
Bushnell felt thatPong was especially significant in its role as asocial lubricant, since it was multiplayer-only and did not require each player to use more than one hand: "It was very common to have a girl with a quarter in hand pull a guy off a bar stool and say, 'I'd like to playPong and there's nobody to play.' It was a way you could play games, you were sitting shoulder to shoulder, you could talk, you could laugh, you could challenge each other ... As you became better friends, you could put down your beer and hug. You could put your arm around the person. You could play left-handed if you so desired. In fact, there are a lot of people who have come up to me over the years and said, 'I met my wife playingPong,' and that's kind of a nice thing to have achieved."[58]
Atari remade the game on numerous platforms. In 1977,Pong and several variants of the game were featured inVideo Olympics, one of the original release titles for theAtari 2600.
The game was also included as a loading screen minigame on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox versions ofTD Overdrive: The Brotherhood of Speed; however, the Windows version does not include it.[66][67]
Tele-GamesPong IV,Sears' version ofPong sequel (Pong Doubles), was one of the many consoles that flooded the market by 1977.
Bushnell felt the best way to compete against imitators was to create better products, leading Atari to produce sequels in the years following the original's release:Pong Doubles,Super Pong,Quadrapong andPinpong.[6] The sequels feature similar graphics, but include new gameplay elements; for example,Pong Doubles allows four players to compete in pairs, whileQuadrapong—also released byKee Games asElimination—has them compete against each other in a four-way field.[68][69] Bushnell also conceptualized afree-to-play version ofPong to entertain children in a doctor's office. He initially titled itSnoopy Pong and fashioned the cabinet afterSnoopy's doghouse with the character on top, but retitled it toPuppy Pong and altered Snoopy to a generic dog to avoid legal action. Bushnell later used the game in his chain ofChuck E. Cheese's restaurants.[6][70][71][72][73] In 1976, Atari releasedBreakout, a single-player variation ofPong where the object of the game is to remove bricks from a wall by hitting them with a ball.[74] LikePong,Breakout was followed bynumerous clones that copied the basic gameplay, such asArkanoid,Alleyway, andBreak 'Em All.[75]
A3Dplatform game withpuzzle andshooter elements was reportedly in development byAtari Corporation for theAtari Jaguar in September 1995 under the titlePong 2000, as part of their series of arcade game updates for the system and was set to have an original storyline for it,[76][77][78] but it was never released.
In 2012, Atari celebrated the 40th anniversary ofPong by releasingPong World foriOS, which was developed by zGames.[81] In 2020, a new game titledPong Quest was developed by Chequered Ink and released byAtari on Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch.[82] A remake ofPong has been announced for release exclusively for theIntellivision Amico.[83]
Dutch design studio Buro Vormkrijgers created aPong-themed clock as a fun project within their offices. After the studio decided to manufacture it for retail, Atari took legal action in February 2006. The two companies eventually reached an agreement in which Buro Vormkrijgers could produce a limited number under license.[92] In 1999, French artistPierre Huyghe created an installation titled "Atari Light", in which two people use handheld gaming devices to playPong on an illuminated ceiling. The work was shown at theVenice Biennale in 2001, and theMuseo de Arte Contemporáneo de Castilla y León in 2007.[93] The game was included in theLondonBarbican Art Gallery's 2002Game On exhibition meant to showcase the various aspects of video game history, development, and culture.[94]
Beginning in 2012,Chuck E. Cheese's began referencing Pong as a part of the rebranding of theChuck E. Cheese character. According to a backstory of the character published in 2014, Chuck E. won $50 in a Pong tournament and moved toNew York City, where he eventually met the rest of the band members.[95]
^Smith, Alexander (November 19, 2019).They Create Worlds: The Story of the People and Companies That Shaped the Video Game Industry, Vol. I: 1971-1982.CRC Press. p. 159-160.ISBN978-0-429-75261-2.
Kline, Stephen; Dyer-Witheford, Nick; De Peuter, Greig (2003).Digital Play: The interaction of Technology, Culture and Marketing. McGill-Queen's Press.ISBN978-0-7735-2591-7.
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