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Pomerania during the High Middle Ages covers thehistory of Pomerania in the 12th and 13th centuries.
The early 12th centuryObodrite,Polish,Saxon, andDanish conquests resulted invassalage andChristianization of the formerly pagan and independentPomeranian tribes.[1][2][3][4] Local dynasties ruled thePrincipality of Rügen (House of Vitslav), theDuchy of Pomerania (House of Pomerania, "Griffins"), theLands of Schlawe and Stolp (Ratiboride branch of the Griffins), and the duchies inPomerelia (Samborides).[1]
Thedukes of Pomerania expanded their realm intoCircipania andUckermark to the southwest, and competed with theKingdom of Poland and theMargraviate of Brandenburg for territory and formal overlordship over their duchies. Pomerania-Demmin lost most of its territory and was integrated into Pomerania-Stettin (Szczecin) in the mid-13th century. When the Ratiborides died out in 1223, competition arose for the Lands of Schlawe and Stolp,[5] which changed hands numerous times.
Starting in the High Middle Ages, an influx of German settlers and the introduction of German law, custom, andLow German language began the process of Germanisation (Ostsiedlung). Many of the people groups that had dominated the areaduring the Early Middle Ages, such as theSlavicRani,Lutician andPomeranian tribes, were assimilated into the newGerman Pomeranian culture. The Germanisation was not complete, as theKashubians, descendants ofSlavic Pomeranians, dominated many rural areas inPomerelia, and the eastern part of the region remained Polish. The arrival of German colonists and Germanization mostly affected both the central and local administration.[6]
Theconversion of Pomerania toChristianity was achieved primarily by the missionary efforts ofAbsalon andOtto von Bamberg, by the foundation of numerous monasteries, and through the Christian clergy and settlers.A Pomeranian diocese was set up inWolin, the see was later moved toCammin (Kammin, Kamień Pomorski).
After thedecline of the Lutician federation and the subsequent expansion of the Obodrite realm into former Lutician areas, and following the victory ofObodrite princeHenry in theBattle of Schmilau in 1093,Helmold of Bosau reported that among others theLuticians,[7]Pomeranians[7] andRani[7] had to pay tribute to Obodrite prince Henry.[7][8] The Rani however launched a naval expedition in 1100, in the course of which they siegedLiubice, a predecessor of modernLübeck and then the Obodrite capitol.[9] This attack was however repulsed, and the Rani became tributary again.[7][9] After they had killed Henry's son Woldemar and stopped paying tribute, Henry retaliated with two expeditions launched in the winters of 1123/24 and 1124/25, supported byWendish andSaxon troops.[7] The RaniSvetovit priests were forced to negotiate,[9] and the island was spared only in return for an immense sum which had to be collected from the continental Slavs further east. At this time,Wartislaw I, Duke of Pomerania, was already expanding his realm into Liutician territories south of the Rani. Regrouping after Henry's death (1127), the Rani again assaulted and this time destroyed Liubice in 1128,[9][10] ending Obodrite influence in the Pomeranian territories.
In several expeditions mounted between 1102[11] and 1121,[12] most of Pomerania had been acquired by the Polish dukeBolesław III Wrymouth.[13]
From 1102 to 1109, Bolesław campaigned in theNoteć andParsęta area.[14] The Pomeranian residence inBiałogard was taken already in 1102.[13] From 1112 to 1116, Bolesław took all of Pomerelia.[14] From 1119 to 1122, the area towards theOder was acquired.[14]Szczecin was taken in the winter of 1121/1122.[14]
The conquest resulted in a high death toll and devastation of vast areas of Pomerania, and the Pomeranian dukes became vassals of Boleslaw III of Poland.[2][3][4] Deportations of Pomeranians to Poland took place.[12][15][clarification needed] The terms of surrender after the Polish conquest were that Wartislaw had to accept Polish sovereignty, convert his people to Christianity, and pay an annual tribute to the Polish duke.[3]
The Annals of Traska report that "Boleslaw III crossed the sea and captured castles."[16] The currently prevailing view is that this mention refers to a campaign in Pomerania, but proposed targets also include theLevant,Denmark[17] andÖland.[18] In Pomerania, Boleslaw's targets may have beenRügen/Rugia,Wolin or Szczecin.[17][19]
Inc. 1130 the conquests of Bolesław III reached the island ofRugia (Rügen), and in 1135 modernHither Pomerania and Rugia were recognized as a Polish fief.[20]
Pomerelia, initially under Polish control, was ruled by the Samborides dynasty from 1227 until 1294.[1] The duchy was split temporarily[when?] into districts of Gdańsk,Białogarda,Świecie andLubieszewo–Tczew .
In Pomerania proper, Polish rule ended with Boleslaw III's death in 1138.[21][22][23] TheSłupsk andSławno areas (Lands of Schlawe and Stolp were ruled byRatibor I and his descendants (Ratiboriden branch of the GriffinHouse of Pomerania) until the Danish occupation and extinction of the Ratiboride branch in 1227.
The areas stretching fromKołobrzeg to Szczecin were ruled by Ratibor's brotherWartislaw I and his descendants (House of Pomerania, also calledGriffins, of which he was the first ascertained ancestor) until the 1630s.[1]
The first attempt to convert thePomeranians toChristianity following the acquisition of Pomerania byBoleslaw III of Poland was made in 1122. TheSpanish monkBernard (also Bernhard) travelled to Jumne (Wolin), accompanied only by his chaplain and an interpreter. The Pomeranians however were not impressed by his missionary efforts and finally threw him out of town.[3][14][24] Bernard was later madebishop of Lubusz.[3]
After Bernard's misfortune, Boleslaw III askedOtto of Bamberg[25] to convert Pomerania toChristianity, which he accomplished in his first visit in 1124/25.[26] Otto's strategy severely differed from the one Bernard used: While Bernard travelled alone and as a poor and unknown priest, Otto, a wealthy and famous man, was accompanied by 20 clergy of his own diocese, numerous servants, 60 warriors supplied to him by Boleslaw, and carried with him numerous supplies and gifts. After arriving inPyrzyce, the Pomeranians were assured that Otto's aim was not the gain of wealth at the expense of the Pomeranian people, as he was wealthy already, but only to convert them to Christianity, which would protect the Pomeranians from further punishment by God, as which the devastating Polish conquest was depicted. This approach turned out to be successful, and was backed by parts of the Pomeranian nobility that in part was Christian raised already, like duke Wartislaw, who encouraged and promoted Otto's mission. Many Pomeranians were baptized already in Pyrzyce and also in the other burghs visited.[3][27][28][29][30] Afterwards, alsoKamień, Szczecin and Wolin accepted Christianity, however, the two latter cities only after Bolesław III intervened and promised to reduce taxes.[31]
At this first mission, Otto founded at least eleven churches, two of those each in Szczecin and Wolin.[32] In Szczecin and Wolin, some locals still tried to fight Christianization.[33]
Otto of Bamberg returned in 1128,[28] this time invited by duke Wartislaw himself, aided by the emperor Holy Roman Emperor Lothair III, to convert the Slavs of Western Pomerania just incorporated into the Pomeranian duchy, and to strengthen the Christian faith of the inhabitants of Szczecin and Wolin, who fell back into heathen practices and idolatry.[29][34] Otto this time visited primarilyWestern Pomeranian burghs, had the temples ofGützkow andWolgast torn down and on their sites erected the predecessors of today's St. Nicholas and St. Peter churches, respectively, before turning toKamień, Wolin and Szczecin.[34] The nobility assembled to a congress inUsedom,[34] at which they accepted Christianity on 10 June 1128.[26][29][35] Otto then was titledapostolus gentis Pomeranorum, made asaint by popeClement III in 1189, and was worshiped in Pomerania even after theProtestant Reformation.[36]
Holy Roman Emperor Lothair claimed the areas west of theOder for his empire. Thus the terms of Otto's second mission were not negotiated withBoleslaw III of Poland, but with Lothar and Wartislaw.[citation needed] However Lothair terminated the mission in the fall of 1128, probably because he distrusted Otto's contacts with Boleslaw. Otto visitedGniezno on his way back toBamberg.[34]
Adalbert of Pomerania, the later Pomeranian bishop, participated in Otto's mission as an interpreter and assistant.[37][38]
The priests of the numerous gods worshipped before the conversion were one of the most powerful class in the early medieval society. Their reaction to theChristianization of Pomerania was ambiguous: In 1122, they saved missionary Bernhard's life by declaring him insane, otherwise he would have been killed in Wolin. On the other hand, Otto of Bamberg's mission was a far larger threat to the established pagan tradition, and eventually it succeeded in Christianization of the region. There are reports of unsuccessful assassination attempts made against Otto of Bamberg by the pagan priesthood. Following Otto's success, some of the pagan priests werecrucified, while it is unknown what happened to the others. It has been speculated that they adapted to the new reality.[38]
All of Pomerania from the Oder to the Vistula was under the ecclesiastical administration of the PolishArchdiocese of Gniezno until 1123/c. 1140, when new dioceses were founded.[39]
On Otto of Bamberg's behalf, adiocese was founded with the see inWolin (Julin,Jumne,Vineta),[26] a major Slavic and Viking town in theOder estituary. On 14 October 1140Adalbert of Pomerania was made the firstBishop byPope Innocent II.[26] Otto however had died the year before.[26] There was a rivalry between Otto'sDiocese of Bamberg, theDiocese of Magdeburg and theArchdiocese of Gniezno for the incorporation of Pomerania. Pope Innocence II solved the dispute by repelling their claims and placed the new diocese directly under hisHoly See. The see of the diocese was the church ofSt Adalbert in Wolin.[37] The diocese had no clear-cut borders in the beginning, but roughly reached from theTribsees burgh in the West to theŁeba River in the East. In the South, it comprised the northern parts ofUckermark andNeumark. As such, it was shaped after the territory held byRatibor I, Duke of Pomerania.[37]
After ongoing Danish raids, Wollin was destroyed, and the see of the diocese was shifted across theDziwna to Kamień Pomorski's St John's church in 1176. This was confirmed by the pope in 1186. In the early 13th century, the Kamień diocese along with the Pomeranian dukes gained control over Circipania. Also, the bishops managed to gain direct control over a territory around Kołobrzeg andKoszalin.
In the 12th century, the Pomerelian areas were integrated into the PolishDiocese of Włocławek, based inKuyavia, a region neighbouring with Pomerelia in the south.[41] In the early 13th century,Słupsk andSławno passed from the ecclesiastical administration of the Bishopric of Kamień to the Archdiocese of Gniezno, within which an archdeaconry was established with its seat in Słupsk.[42] The Słupsk archdeaconry existed until 1317, when the city passed again to the ecclesiastical administration of the Diocese of Kamień.[42]
After the successful conversion of the nobility, monasteries were set up on vast areas granted by local dukes both to further implement Christian faith and to develop the land. The monasteries actively took part in theOstsiedlung.[29][43] Most of the clergy originated in Germany, some in Poland, and since the mid-12th century also from Denmark.[44]
TheCistercian monasteries inKołbacz,Oliwa andPelplin, founded in 1173, 1188 and 1274, respectively, are listed asHistoric Monuments of Poland.[45][46][47]
In 1147, theWendish Crusade, a campaign of theNorthern Crusades, was mounted by bishops and nobles of the Holy Roman Empire and Poland.[48] The crusaders ravaged the land and laid siege toDemmin andSzczecin despite them (officially) being already Christian. Wolin's bishopAdalbert took part in the negotiations that finally led to the lifting of the Szczecin siege by the crusaders.Ratibor I, Duke of Pomerania, went to theImperial Diet inHavelberg the following year, where he swore to be a Christian.[26][49][50]
Wartislaw I died between 1134 and 1148. His brotherRatibor I, duke in theSłupsk and Sławno Land, ruled in place of Wartislaw's sons,Bogislaw I andCasimir I until his death in about 1155. Then the duchy was split into Pomerania-Demmin, ruled by Casimir, including the upperPeene,Tollense,Dziwna andRega areas, and Pomerania-Szczecin, ruled by Bogislaw, including the lowerPeene,Uecker,Oder, andIna areas. TheKołobrzeg area was ruled in common as a codominion.[51]
In the meantime, Wartislaw managed to conquer territories west of theOder river, an area inhabited byLutici tribes weakened by past warfare, and included these territories into hisDuchy of Pomerania. Already in 1120, he had expanded west into the areas near theOder Lagoon andPeene river. Most notablyDemmin, thePrincipality of Gützkow andWolgast were conquered in the following years.[22]
The major stage of the westward expansion into Lutici territory occurred between Otto of Bamberg's two missions, 1124 and 1128. In 1128, Demmin, the County of Gützkow and Wolgast were already incorporated into Wartislaw I's realm, yet warfare was still going on.[53] Captured Lutici and other war loot, including livestock, money, and clothes were apportioned among the victorious.[54] After Wartislaw's Lutician conquests, his duchy lay between theBay of Greifswald to the north,Circipania, includingGüstrow, to the west, Kolberg/Kołobrzeg in the east, and possibly as far as theHavel andSpree rivers in the south.[55]
After the conquests, Wartislaw's realm stretched from theBay of Greifswald in the North andCircipania withGüstrow in the West to theHavel and possibly also theSpree rivers in the South and the Kolobrzeg area in the east.[55]
These gains were not subject to Polish over lordship,[21][56] but were placed under over lordship ofNordmarkmargraveAlbert the Bear, who according to Bialecki was a dedicated enemy of Slavs,[57] byLothair III, Holy Roman Emperor.[21] Thus, the western territories contributed to making Wartislaw significantly independent from the Polish dukes.[58] Wartislaw was not the only one campaigning in these areas. The Polish duke Boleslaw III, during his Pomeranian campaign launched an expedition into theMüritz area in 1120/21,[59] before he turned back to subdue Wartislaw. The laterHoly Roman Emperor Lothair III (thenSaxon duke Lothair I of Supplinburg) in 1114 initiated large scale campaigns against the local Lutici tribes resulting in their final defeat in 1228.[59][clarification needed] Also, the territories were invaded by Danish forces multiple times, who, coming from theBaltic Sea, used the rivers Peene andUecker to advance to a lineDemmin–Pasewalk.[56] At different times, Pomeranians, Saxons and Danes were either allies or opponents.[56] ThePomeranian dukes consolidated their power in the course of the 12th century, yet the preceding warfare had left these territories completely devastated.[60]
During Wartislaw I's rule society was composed of the Pomeranian freeman and the slaves, who consisted mostly of Wendish, German or Danish war captives. The freemen generally made their living from agriculture, fishing and husbandry, as well as hunting and trade.[54][61] Their social status depended both on accumulated wealth as well as noble status. The proportion of slaves in the total population of the area was relatively small and in fact the Pomeranians exported slaves to Poland.[54][61]
The largest settlements were Wolin and Szczecin, each of which had a few thousand inhabitants, and a biweekly market day.[62] While some historians address these settlements as towns, this is rejected by others due to the differences to later towns. They are usually referred to as early towns, proto-towns,castle towns or emporia; their Slavic designation was*grod (gard inPomeranian andPolabian language).[nb 1] The population of Pomerania was relatively wealthy in comparison to her neighbors, owing to abundant land, inter-regional trade andpiracy.[62]
Wartislaw's power and standing differed depending on the area. In the east of his duchy (Kamień Pomorski,Białogard, andKołobrzeg area) his power was strongest, tribal assemblies are not documented. In the center (Wolin, Szczecin, and Pyrzyce area) Wartislaw had to yield the decisions of the local population and nobility. In the towns, Wartislaw maintained small courts. Every decision of Wartislaw had to pass an assembly of the elders and an assembly of the free. In the newly gained Lutici territories of the West, Wartislaw managed to establish a rule that resembled his rule in the eastern parts, but also negotiated with the nobility.[63]
In 1134, Pomeranian troops invaded Denmark and even lootedRoskilde, then the Danish capital.[64] In 1135, NorwegianKonghelle was attacked and sacked.[64]
The Griffin dukes of Pomerania sought Polish support against Germans and Danes, but Poland, weakened due to its fragmentation into smaller principalities after 1138, could not provide it.[65]
In the West, bishops and dukes of theHoly Roman Empire mounted expeditions to Pomerania. Most notable for the further fate of Pomerania are the 1147Wendish Crusade and the 1164Battle of Verchen, the Pomeranian dukes became vassals ofHenry the Lion,of Saxony.[48]Circipania came under control of the Pomeranian dukes at about this time. Despite this vassalage, Henry again sieged Demmin in 1177 when he allied with the Danes, but reconciled with the Pomeranian dukes thereafter.[66]
From the North, Denmark attacked Pomerania. Several campaigns throughout the 12th century (in 1136, 1150, 1159 and throughout the 1160s) culminated in the defeat of thePrincipality of Rugia in 1168.[67]
The island ofRügen and the surrounding areas between theRecknitz,Peene andRyck rivers were the settlement area of the West SlavicRani (or Rujani) tribe. After Otto von Bamberg's mission, only theRaniprincipality of Rugia (Rügen) remained pagan. This was changed by a Danishexpedition of 1168, launched byValdemar I of Denmark andAbsalon,archbishop of Roskilde.[26] The Danish success in this expedition ended a series of conflicts between Denmark and Rügen. The Rügen princes, starting withJaromar I, became vassals of Denmark,[48][68] and the principality would be Denmark's bridgehead on the southern shore of the Baltic for the next centuries. The 1168 expedition was decided when after a Danish siege of theburgh ofArkona, a fire broke out leaving the defendants unable to further withstand the siege. Since Arkona was the major temple of the superior godSvetovit and therefore crucial for the powerful clerics, the Rani surrendered their other strongholds and temples without further fighting.Absalon had the Rani hand out and burn the wooden statues of their gods and integrated Rügen in theDiocese of Roskilde. The mainland of the Rügen principality was integrated into theDiocese of Schwerin.
When the Rugian princes became vassals ofValdemar I of Denmark in 1168, the Saxon-Danish alliance broke apart.[48]
In the fall of 1170, the Danes raided theOder estituary. In 1171, the Danes raidedCircipania and took Cotimar's burgh inBehren-Lübchin. In 1173, the Danes turned to theOder Lagoon again, taking the burgh ofSzczecin.Wartislaw II Swantiboriz, castellan of Szczecin, became a Danish vassal. In 1177, the Danes again raided the Oder Lagoon area, also the burgh ofWolgast in 1178.[69]
In 1184,Bogislaw I led the Pomeranian navy towardsRügen. On emperorBarbarossa's initiative, Bogislaw was to take thePrincipality of Rügen from the Danes, whose kingCanut VI had refused him the oath of fealty. Though superior in numbers, the Pomeranian navy was utterly defeated by the Danish navy led byAbsalon nearKoos island in theBay of Greifswald.[64]
In 1184 and 1185, three campaigns of the Danes resulted in makingBogislaw I, Duke of Pomerania a Danish vassal. These campaigns were mounted by Valdemar's son and successor for the Danish throne,Canute VI of Denmark. In theDuchy of Pomerania the Danish period lasted untilValdemar II of Denmark lost theBattle of Bornhöved on 22 July 1227. Danish supremacy prevailed until 1325[67] in the Rugian principality.[64][69] During this time, the emperor formally renounced his claims on the southernBaltic Sea in favour of Denmark.[64]
Following internal struggles,Henry the Lion fell againstHoly Roman Emperor FrederickBarbarossa in 1181.Bogislaw I took his duchy as a fief directly from Barbarossa in the same year.[64][68]
At that time, the duchy was also referred to asSlavinia (German:Slawien) (yet this was a term applied to severalWendish areas such asMecklenburg and the Principality of Rügen). The duchy remained in the Empire, although Denmark managed to take control of the southern Baltic including the Duchy of Pomerania from the 1180s until the 1227Battle of Bornhöved.
While in the early 12th century most of the Pomeranians were free, by the late 12th century only the nobility and knights remained free. They were free in their decisions concerning their property and actions, though formally they had to apply for the duke's support.[70]
The class of the unfree still consisted of prisoners of war, but additionally one became unfree after conviction of a major criminal offense or if one was unable to pay one's debts. The unfree made up for an estimated 15% of the population and primarily had to work on the lands of the free.[70]
Most of the population of this time was largely dependent on the duke. This dependency could also result in becoming dependent on a person other than the duke, if the duke granted parts of his lands including the population thereon to a noble, a church, or a monastery. This class shared certain obligations and restrictions with the unfree, for example ahead tax, and a restricted right to marry.[70]
Their major obligations were participation in the duke's military campaigns, defense of the duchy, erection and maintenance of the ducal buildings (burghs, courts, bridges), to hand over horses, oxen, and carriages to the duke or his officials on demand, to host and to cater the duke or his officials on demand, to supply rations for the duke's journeys, a periodic tribute in form of a fixed amount of meat and wheat, and also a church tax ("biskopownica", since 1170 "Garbenzehnt").[43]
Beginning in the 12th century, on the initiative of monasteries,[71] as well as the local nobility, German settlers began migrating to Pomerania in a process later termed theOstsiedlung. The local nobles and rulers encouraged the settlement in order to strengthen and consolidate their position and to develop and intensify land use, while the settlers were attracted by the privileges that were granted to them.[72]
Through a process that spanned three hundred years, in western Pomerania the local Slavic population was mostly assimilated, while in the eastern part, Slavic Kashubians and Slovincians held on to their ethnic culture and identity.
Before the Ostsiedlung, Pomerania was rather sparsely settled. Around 1200, a relatively dense population could be found on the islands ofRügen,Usedom andWolin, around the gards ofSzczecin,Koszalin,Pyrzyce andStargard, around theParsęta river (Kołobrzeg area), the lowerPeene river, and betweenSławno and theŁeba valley. Largely unsettled were the hilly regions and the woods in the South. The 12th century warfare, especially the Danish raids, depopulated many areas of Pomerania and caused severe population drops in others (e.g. Usedom). At the turn to the 13th century, only isolated German settlements existed, e.g.Hohenkrug and other German villages, and the merchant's settlement near the Szczecin castle. In contrast, the monasteries were almost exclusively run by Germans and Danes.[73]
The first German and Danish settlers arrived since the 1170s and settled in thePeene area, theUckermark, theSzczecin area and southern Pomerania.[74]
Significant German settlement started in the first half of the 13th century. Ostsiedlung was a common process at this time in all Central Europe and was largely run by the nobles and monasteries to increase their income. Also, the settlers were expected to finish and secure the conversion of the non-nobles to Christianity. In addition, the Danes withdrew from most of Pomerania in 1227, leaving the duchy vulnerable to their expansive neighbors, especiallyMecklenburg,Brandenburg, andHenry I of Silesia.[75]
Besides theSlovincian area, the last records of a Slavic language in theDuchy of Pomerania are from the 16th century: In the Oder area, a few Slavic fishing villages are recorded, and east ofKolberg (Kołobrzeg) andKöslin (Koszalin), a more numerous Slavic-speaking population must have existed, as can be concluded from a 1516 decree forbidding the use of the Slavic language at the Köslin market.[76]
Before the Ostsiedlung, urban settlements of the emporia[clarification needed] andgard[nb 1] types existed, for example the city ofSzczecin which counted between 5,000 and 9,000 inhabitants,[77][78] and other locations likeDemmin,Wolgast,Usedom, Wolin, Kołobrzeg, Pyrzyce and Stargard, though many of the coastal ones declined during the 12th century warfare.[79] Previous theories that urban development was "in its entirety" brought to areas such as Pomerania, Mecklenburg or Poland by Germans are now discarded, and studies show that these areas had already growing urban centres in process similar to Western Europe[80] These population centres were usually centered on a gard, which was a fortified castle which housed thecastellan as well as his staff and the ducal craftsmen. The surrounding town consisted of suburbs, inhabited by merchants, clergy and the higher nobles. According to Piskorski this portion usually included "markets, taverns, butcher shops, mints, which also exchanged coins, toll stations, abbeys, churches and the houses of nobles".[81]
Important changes connected to Ostsiedlung included
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Between 1234 and 1299, 34 towns[91] were founded[93] in the Pomeranian duchy, this number increased to 58 in the late Middle Ages.[91] The towns were built on behalf of the Pomeranian dukes or ecclesiastic bodies like monasteries and orders.[29] Most prominent on this issue was Barnim I of Pomerania-Stettin, who since was entitled "the towns' founder". The towns build on his behalf were grantedMagdeburg Law and settled predominantly by people from the westernMargraviate of Brandenburg, while the towns founded in the North (most on behalf of theRugian princes and Wartislaw III of Pomerania-Demmin were grantedLübeck Law and were settled predominantly by people fromLower Saxony. The first towns were Stralsund (Principality of Rügen, 1234), Prenzlau (Uckermark, then Pomerania-Stettin, 1234),Bahn (Knights Templar, about 1234), and Stettin (1237/43),Gartz (Oder) (Pomerania-Stettin, 1240), andLoitz (byDetlev of Gadebusch, 1242). Other towns built in the 1240s wereDemmin,Greifswald (byEldena Abbey),Altentreptow.[94]
According to Rădvan (2010), "a relevant example for how towns were founded (civitas libera) is Prenzlau today within German boundaries, close to Poland. It was here that, a short distance from an older Slavic settlement, duke Barnim I of Pomerania entrusted in 1234-35 the creation of a new settlement to eight contractors (referred to as fondatores) originating from Stendal, Saxony. The eight, who were probably relatives to some degree, were granted 300 Hufen (around 4800 ha) that were to be distributed to settlers, each one of the fondatores being entitled to 160 ha for himself and the right to build mills; one of them became the duke's representative. The settlers' land grant was tax exempt for three years, and it was to be kept in eternal and hereditary possession. A 1.5 km (1 mi) perimeter around the settlement was provided for unrestricted use by the community of pastures, forests, or fishing. Those trading were dispensed of paying taxes for land under ducal authority. Without being mentioned in the founding act, the old Slavic community persisted as nothing more that a suburb to the new town. Aside from several topical variations, many settlements in medieval Poland and other areas followed a similar pattern."[95]
Many towns with a gard in close proximity had the duke level the castle when they grew in power. Stettin, where the castle was inside the town, had the duke level it already in 1249,[96] other towns were to follow. The fortified new towns had succeeded the gards as strongholds for the country's defense. In many cases, the former Slavic settlement would become a suburb of the German town ("Wiek", "Wieck"). In Stettin, two "Wiek" suburbs were set up anew outside the walls, to which most Slavs from within the walls were resettled. Such Wiek settlements did initially not belong to the town, but to the duke, although they were likely to come into possession of the town in the course of the 14th century. Also in the 14th century, Slavic Wiek suburbs lost their Slavic character.[97]
In western Pomerania, including Rugia, the process of Ostsiedlung differed from how it took place in other parts of Eastern Europe in that a high proportion of the settlers was composed ofScandinavians, especiallyDanes, and migrants fromScania. The highest Danish influence was on the Ostsiedlung of the then DanishRugian principality. In the possessions of the RugianEldena Abbey, a Danish establishment, settlers who opened atavern would respectively be treated according to Danish, German and Wendish law.[98]
Wampen,Ladebow, and other villages nearGreifswald are of Danish origin.[99] Yet, many Scandinavian settlers in the Pomeranian towns were of German origin, moving from older German merchants' settlements in Sweden to the newly founded towns at the Southern Baltic shore.[100]
During the reign ofOtto I, Margrave of Brandenburg and son ofAlbert I of Brandenburg (1100–1170), Brandenburg claimedsovereignty over Pomerania. Yet, in 1181,Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I invested DukeBogislaw I of the GriffinHouse of Pomerania with the Duchy ofSlavia (Pomerania). This was not accepted by theMargraviate of Brandenburg and triggered several military conflicts.
Between 1185 and 1227, Pomerania along with most of the southern Baltic coast remained under sovereignty of Denmark. However, Brandenburg again tried to gain sovereignty over Pomerania, and in 1214 for a short time conqueredSzczecin.[101] After Denmark lost theBattle of Bornhöved in 1227, Denmark lost all her territories on the southern Baltic shore, including Pomerania.[102]
At this time, theDuchy of Pomerania was co-ruled by dukeWartislaw III of Demmin and dukeBarnim I of Szczecin. After the Danes retreated, Brandenburg took her chance and invaded Pomerania-Demmin. In 1231,Holy Roman EmperorFrederick II gave the duchy, which then was again a part of the empire, as a fief to theAscanian margraves of Brandenburg.[103][104]
Denmark also attempted to restore her rule and tookWolgast andDemmin in 1235, but was driven out the same year.[105] Wartislaw had to accept Brandenburg's overlordship in the 1236Treaty of Kremmen, furthermore he had to hand over most of his duchy to Brandenburg immediately, that was theBurg Stargard Land and adjacted areas (all soon to become a part ofMecklenburg, forming the bulk of the laterMecklenburg-Strelitz area).Circipania was already lost to Mecklenburg in the years before.
In the 1250Treaty of Landin between Pomeranian dukes and margraves of Brandenburg, Barnim I managed to reassert the rule of his Griffin house over Pomerania, but lost theUckermark to Brandenburg.
Brandenburg since 1250 expanded eastward. In 1250/52, the margraves gained half ofLubusz Land, including theKostrzyn Land between Warta andMietzel (Myśla), and the terraChinz north of the Mietzel river, both previously held by Barnim. In the course of the 1250s, the margraves further gained theSantok andDrezdenkocastellanies except for the burghs itself, of both castellanies actually belonging toGreater Poland, Barnim had held the northern parts. In 1261, Barnim lost theMyślibórz area, and in the following years theCedynia area to Brandenburg.[106]
In 1264, DukeWartislaw III of Demmin died, his cousin Barnim I (the Good) became the sole ruler of the duchy. In 1266, Barnim I married Mechthild, the daughter ofOtto III, Margrave of Brandenburg.
In 1269, Barnim lost theChoszczno area to the margraves. Before his death, he bought the western part back in 1278.[107]
Bogislaw IV lost thePełczyce area andZinnenburg Land (terra Arnhausen and terraSchivelbein), in 1280. All former Pomeranian territories east of the Oder lost to Brandenburg in the 13th century became parts of the BrandenburgianNeumark ("new march").[107]
In 1234 and 1241,Silesian dukesHenry I andHenry II expanded their realm to the North, and even took control of areas north of theWarta river previously held by the Dukes of Pomerania.[108] TheGriffin dukes,Silesian Piasts,Dukes of Greater Poland, thebishops of Lubusz and thebishops of Kamień all competed for the Warta/Noteć area, centered on the burgh ofSantok. Until 1250,Barnim I, Duke of Pomerania had recovered most of the previous Pomeranian territory[108] and sought to secure them with the settlement of Germans, while Zantoch burgh was held byPrzemysł II of Greater Poland.[106]
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The last member of the Ratiborides branch of the Griffins,Ratibor II, died in 1223.[5] This led to a competition between the Griffins and the Pomerelian Samborides for inheritance of Sławno and Słupsk.[5] Because Ratibor died during the Danish period, Denmark administered the area until she had to withdraw after the lostBattle of Bornhöved in 1227.[5]Barnim I, Duke of Pomerania, took control of the lands immediately after the Danish withdrawal, but had to yield Pomerelian dukeSwietopelk's rights, whose relationship to the Ratiborides was closer.[5] Swietopelk took over the Sławno and Słupsk area in 1235/36.[5] The Griffins mounted an unsuccessful campaigns to gain the area in 1236/38,[109] 1253,[5][109] 1259,[5][109] and 1266.[109] After the death ofŚwiętopełk II in 1266, Barnim I took over the area and kept it until 1269, whenRugian princeVitslav II took over.[5] He withdrew in 1277 and left the area to Brandenburg.[5] In 1283,Mestwin II of Pomerelia took over.[5] Competition arose anew after his death in 1294.[5] In 1296, Vitslav's son Sambor launched another campaign.[109]
When the area became incorporated into the Pomerelian duchy, theSwienca family gained control and gradually evolved to autonomously acting counts.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link);Blomkvist, Nils (2005).The Discovery of the Baltic. The Reception of a Catholic World-System in the European North (a.d. 1075–1225). The Northern World. Vol. 15. Leiden. p. 330.ISBN 9789004141223.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link):"In Polish research many suggestions have been made, from a mere crossing over Stettiner Bucht, to an assault on Rügen. Tyc [...] states that the objective of Boleslaus' navigation remains unknown," referring toTyc, Teodor (1997).Z średniowiecznych dziejów Wielkopolski i Pomorza: wybór prac. Zebrał i posłowiem opatrzył Jan M Piskorski. Poznań. pp. 206ff.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link){{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)