Polytheism is the belief in or worship of more than onegod.[1][2][3] According to Oxford Reference, it is not easy to count gods, and so not always obvious whether an apparently polytheistic religion, such as Chinese folk religions, is really so, or whether the apparent different objects of worship are to be thought of as manifestations of a singular divinity.[1] Polytheistic belief is usually assembled into apantheon ofgods andgoddesses, along with their ownreligious sects andrituals. Polytheism is a type oftheism. Within theism, it contrasts withmonotheism, the belief in asingular god who is, in most cases,transcendent.
The recognition of the existence of multiple gods and goddesses does not necessarily equate to the worship of all the deities of one or more pantheons, as the believer can either worship them as a whole, or concentrate only on a specific group of deities, determined by various conditions such as the believer's occupation, tastes, personal experience, family tradition, etc. It is also possible to worship a single deity, considered supreme, without ruling out the existence of other gods. This religious position has been called henotheism, but some prefer to call it monolatry. Although the term "henotheism" is controversial, it is recognized by scholars that the worship of a single God accompanied by belief in other deities maintains the principle of polytheism.[5]
Hinduism, while popularly held as polytheistic by many scholars, cannot be exclusively categorised as such as some Hindus consider themselves to bepantheists,panentheists,henotheist, polymorphist,monotheists ormonist. Hinduism does not have a single book, Hinduism is an umbrella term for a collection of ideologies. They are compatible with Hindu texts, since there exists no consensus of standardisation in the faith.Vedanta, the most dominant school of Hinduism, offers a combination of pantheism/panentheism and polytheism, holding thatBrahman is the soleultimate reality of the universe, yet unity with it can be reached by worshipping the innumerable deities that represent theSupreme Absolute Truth. Hindus who practiceBhakti ultimately believe in one God, who is known variously asParamatman,Parabrahman,Bhagavan,Ishvara, and so on, that transcends all categories (e.g. both of form and formless), however the common people who remain unaware of these concepts worship their deities as ultimate god. Different regions can have their own local deities whose worship is restricted to that region. Bramhan is personification of the concept of Moksha and the different gods are paths to moksha or realising the Brahman.
The term comes from theGreek πολύpoly ("many") and θεόςtheos ("god") and was coined by the Jewish writerPhilo of Alexandria to argue with the Greeks. When Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, non-Christians were calledGentiles (a term originally used by Jews to refer to non-Jews) orpagans (locals) or by the clearly pejorative term idolaters (worshippers of "false" gods). In modern times, the term polytheism was first revived in French byJean Bodin in 1580, followed bySamuel Purchas's usage in English in 1614.[7]
A major division in modern polytheistic practices is between so-called soft polytheism and hard polytheism.[8][9]
"Soft" polytheism is the belief that different gods may either be psychologicalarchetypes, personifications of natural forces, or as being one essential god interpreted through the lenses of different cultures (e.g.Odin,Zeus, andIndra all being the same god as interpreted by Germanic, Greek, and Indic peoples respectively) – known asomnitheism.[10] In this way, gods may be interchangeable for one another across cultures.[9]
"Hard" polytheism is the belief that gods are distinct, separate, real divine beings, rather than psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces. Hard polytheists reject the idea that "all gods are one essential god" and may alsoreject the existence of gods outside their own pantheon altogether.[9]
The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories, in many ways similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in theirpersonality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions.Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from theanimist beliefs prevalent in mostfolk religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum ofsupernatural beings or spirits, which may includeancestors,demons,wights, and others. In some cases these spirits are divided intocelestial orchthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped.
Theological: myths that contemplate the essence of the gods, such asCronus swallowing his children, which Sallustius regarded as expressing in allegory the essence of divinity
Physical: expressing the activities of gods in the world
Psychological: myths as allegories of the activities of the soul itself or the soul's acts of thought
Material: regarding material objects as gods, for example: to call the earthGaia, the ocean Okeanos, or heatTyphon
Mixed
The beliefs of many historical polytheistic religions are commonly referred to as "mythology",[12][unreliable source?] though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished[according to whom?] from their worship or religious practice. For instance, deities portrayed in conflict in mythology were often nonetheless worshipped side by side, illustrating the distinction within the religion between belief and practice.[citation needed] Scholars such asJaan Puhvel,J. P. Mallory, andDouglas Q. Adams have reconstructed aspects of the ancientProto-Indo-European religion from which the religions of the variousIndo-European peoples are thought to derive, which is believed to have been an essentially naturalistnumenistic religion.[citation needed] An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of*dyēus, which is attested in several religious systems of Indo-European-speaking peoples.
In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or other places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of a culture's pantheon to that of the invaders, as in the GreekTitanomachia, and possibly also theÆsir–Vanir war in theNorse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being revered in two places under different names, as seen with the Greeks,Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the cultural transmission of elements of an extraneous religion, as with theancient Egyptian deityOsiris, who was later worshipped inancient Greece.
Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopherEpicurus held that the gods were incorruptible but material, blissful beings who inhabited the empty spaces between worlds and did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep.
The classical scheme in Ancient Greece of theTwelve Olympians (the Canonical Twelve of art and poetry) were:[13][14]Zeus,Hera,Poseidon,Athena,Ares,Demeter,Apollo,Artemis,Hephaestus,Aphrodite,Hermes, andHestia. Though it is suggested that Hestia stepped down whenDionysus was invited toMount Olympus, this is a matter of controversy. Robert Graves'The Greek Myths cites two sources[15][16] that obviously do not suggest Hestia surrendered her seat, though he suggests she did.Hades[17] was often excluded because he dwelt in the underworld. All of the gods had a power. There was, however, a great deal of fluidity as to whom was counted among their number in antiquity.[18] Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes withepithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.
Hellenic Polytheism extended beyond mainland Greece, to the islands and coasts ofIonia inAsia Minor, toMagna Graecia (Sicily and southern Italy), and to scattered Greek colonies in the Western Mediterranean, such asMassalia (Marseille). Greek religion temperedEtruscan cult and belief to form much of the laterRoman religion. During the Hellenistic Era, philosophical schools likeEpicureanism developed distinct theologies.[19] Hellenism is, in practice, primarily centered around polytheistic and animistic worship.
The majority of so-called "folk religions" in the world today (distinguished from traditionalethnic religions) are found in theAsia-Pacific region.[20] This fact conforms to the trend of the majority of polytheist religions being found outside the western world.[21]
Folk religions are often closely tied toanimism. Animistic beliefs are found in historical and modern cultures. Folk beliefs are often labeled superstitions when they are present inmonotheistic societies.[22] Folk religions often do not have organized authorities, also known aspriesthoods, or any formalsacred texts.[23] They often coincide with other religions as well.Abrahamic monotheistic religions, which dominate the western world, typically do not approve of practicing parts of multiple religions, but folk religions often overlap with others.[22] Followers of polytheistic religions do not often problematize following practices and beliefs from multiple religions.
Depending on thetradition practiced,Buddhism may be seen as polytheistic as it at least acknowledges the existence of multiple gods.The Buddha is a leader figure but is not meant to be worshipped as a god.Devas, a Sanskrit word forgods, are also not meant to be worshipped. They are not immortal and have limited powers. A Deva may have been human with positivekarma in previous lives and was reborn as a Deva.[24]A common Buddhist practice istantra: the use of rituals to achieve enlightenment. Tantra focuses on seeing oneself as a deity and the use of deities as symbols rather than supernatural agents.[25]Buddhism is most closely aligned with polytheism when it is linked with other religions, often folk religions. For example, the JapaneseShinto religion, in which deities calledkami are worshipped, is sometimessyncretized with Buddhism.[26]
Although Christianity is usually described as monotheistic,[27][28] it is sometimes claimed that the doctrine of theTrinity, upheld by most Christian traditions since the religion's conception, precludes pure monotheism.[29] The doctrine posits that God consists ofthe Father,the Son and theHoly Spirit. Because the deity is three distinct persons, some believe Christianity should be considered a form oftritheism, a form of polytheism.[30][31] Christianity contends that "one God exists in Three Persons and One Substance,"[32] but that the deity cannot be a unitary person with an individual identity. Christianity inherited the idea of "one God" fromJudaism and maintains that its monotheistic doctrine is central to the faith.
It is sometimes claimed that Christianity is not truly monotheistic because of its idea of theTrinity
Jordan Paper, a Western scholar and self-described polytheist, considers polytheism the normal state of human culture. He argues that "Even the Catholic Church shows polytheistic aspects with the 'veneration' of the saints." On the other hand, he asserts, monotheistic missionaries and scholars were eager to see a proto-monotheism or at leasthenotheism in polytheistic religions, for example, when taking from the Chinese pair of Sky and Earth only one part and calling it theKing of Heaven, asMatteo Ricci did.[33] In 1508, a LondonLollard named William Pottier was accused of believing in six gods.[34]
Joseph Smith, the founder of theLatter Day Saint movement, believed in "the plurality of Gods", saying, "I have always declared God to be a distinct personage, Jesus Christ a separate and distinct personage from God the Father, and that the Holy Ghost was a distinct personage and a Spirit: and these three constitute three distinct personages and three Gods."[35] Mormonism, which emerged from Protestantism,[36] teachesexaltation, which is defined as the hypothesis that people can, in all ways, become like God in theafterlife.[37] Mormonism also affirms the existence of aHeavenly Mother,[38] and the prevailing view among Mormons is thatGod the Father was once a man who lived on a planet with his own higher God, and became perfect after following this higher God.[39][40] Some critics of Mormonism argue that statements in theBook of Mormon describe atrinitarian conception of God (e.g.2 Nephi31:21;Alma11:44), but were superseded by laterrevelations.[41] Due to teachings withinMormon cosmology, some theologians claim that it allows for an infinite number of gods.[42][43][44][45][46][47]
Mormon theology posits that scriptural statements on the unity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost represent a unity of purpose, not substance.[48] They believe that theearly Christian Church did not characterize divinity in terms of an immaterial, formless, shared substance untilpost-apostolic theologians began to incorporate Greek metaphysical philosophies (such asNeoplatonism) into Christian doctrine.[49][50] Mormons believe that the truth about God's nature was restored through modern-day revelation, which reinstated the originalJudeo-Christian concept of a natural, corporeal, immortal God,[51] who is the literal father of the spirits of humans.[52] It is to this personage alone that Mormons pray, as he is and always will be their Heavenly Father, the supreme "God of gods" (Deuteronomy 10:17). In the sense that Mormons worship only God the Father, they consider themselves monotheists. Nevertheless, Mormons adhere to Jesus's teaching that those who receiveGod's Word can obtain the title of "gods" (John 10:33–36) because, as literal children of God, they can take upon themselves his divine attributes.[53] Mormons teach that "The glory of God is intelligence" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus and the Holy Spirit are also divine.[54]
Hinduism is neither a monolithic religion nor anorganized religion: a wide variety of religious traditions and practices are grouped under this umbrella term, and some modern scholars have questioned the legitimacy of unifying them artificially and suggest that one should speak of "Hinduisms" in the plural.[55] TheisticHinduism encompasses both monotheistic and polytheistic tendencies and variations on or mixes of both structures.
Hindus venerate deities in the form of thepratima, or idol. ThePuja (worship) of thepratima is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity (Brahman in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation. However, some sects have advocated that there is no need to give a shape to God and that it is omnipresent and beyond what humans can see or feel tangibly. These gods were not worshipped without a proper consecration ritual.[56] It was believed that after the consecration ritual, the idol no longer remained as stone or metal and attained a temporary or permanent state of divinity.
Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence.[citation needed] This divine essence is usually referred to asBrahman orAtman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such asVedanta.
Among lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism. These practices focus worship on one or more personal deities while granting the existence of others.
Academically speaking, the ancient Vedic scriptures, upon which Hinduism is derived, describe four authorized disciplic lines of teaching coming down over thousands of years. (Padma Purana). Four propound that the Absolute Truth is Fully Personal, as in Judeo-Christian theology. They say that the Primal Original God is Personal, both transcendent and immanent throughout creation. He can be and is often approached through worship of Prathimas, called "Archa-Vigraha", described in the Vedas as identical to his various dynamic, spiritual Forms. This is the Vaisnava theology.
The fifth disciplic line of Vedic spirituality, founded byAdi Shankaracharya, promotes the concept that the Absolute is Brahman, without clear differentiations, will, thought, or intelligence.
In theSmarta denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy ofAdvaita expounded byShankara allows veneration of numerous deities[citation needed] with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power,Brahman. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such asVishnu,Shiva,Ganesha,Hanuman,Lakshmi,Kali,Parvati,Durga,Rama,Krishna but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being".[citation needed] However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that the same impersonal, divine power united all individuals in the form of theAtman.
Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism.Ram Swarup, for example, points to theVedas as being specifically polytheistic,[57] and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness."[58]
Nasadiya Sukta (Hymn of non-Eternity, origin of universe):
There was neither non-existence nor existence then;
Neither the realm of space, nor the sky which is beyond;
What stirred? Where? In whose protection?
There was neither death nor immortality then;
No distinguishing sign of night nor of day;
That One breathed, windless, by its own impulse;
Other than that there was nothing beyond.
Darkness there was at first, by darkness hidden;
Without distinctive marks, this all was water;
That which, becoming, by the void was covered;
That One by force of heat came into being;
Who really knows? Who will here proclaim it?
Whence was it produced? Whence is this creation?
Gods came afterwards, with the creation of this universe.
Who then knows whence it has arisen?
Whether God's will created it, or whether He was mute;
Perhaps it formed itself, or perhaps it did not;
The Supreme Brahman of the world, all pervasive and all knowing
He indeed knows, if not, no one knows
-Rig Veda 10.129 (Abridged, Tr: Kramer / Christian)
Some Hindus construe this notion of polytheism in the sense of polymorphism—one God with many forms or names. TheRig Veda, the primary Hindu scripture, elucidates this as follows:
They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman.To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan.Book I, Hymn 164, Verse 46 Rigveda
Prods Oktor Skjærvø statesZoroastrianism is henotheistic and "a dualistic and polytheistic religion, but with one supreme god, who is the father of the ordered cosmos".[60] Other scholars state that this is unclear, because historic texts present a conflicting picture, ranging from Zoroastrianism's belief in "one god, two gods, or a best god henotheism".[61]
The nature ofTengrism remains debatable. According to many scholars, Tengrism was originallypolytheistic, but amonotheistic branch with the sky god Kök-Tengri as thesupreme being evolved as a dynastical legitimation. It is at least agreed that Tengrism formed from the diverse folk religions of the local people and may have had diverse branches.[62][63][64]
It is suggested that Tengrism was a monotheistic religion only at the imperial level in aristocratic circles,[65][66][67] and, perhaps, only by the 12th–13th centuries (a late form of development of ancient animistic shamanism in the era of the Mongol empire).[68]
According toJean-Paul Roux, the monotheistic concept evolved from a polytheistic system and was not the original form of Tengrism. The monotheistic concept helped to legitimate the rule of the dynasty: "As there is only one God in Heaven, there can only be one ruler on the earth ...".[69]
Others point out that Tengri itself was never an Absolute, but only one of many gods of the upper world, thesky deity, of polytheistic shamanism, later known as Tengrism.[70]
The term also describes several contemporary Turko-Mongolic nativereligious movements and teachings. All modern adherents of "political" Tengrism are monotheists.[71]
Modern Paganism, also known asneopaganism andcontemporary paganism,[72] is a group of contemporaryreligious movements influenced by or claiming to be derived from the varioushistorical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe.[73][74] Although they have commonalities, contemporary pagan religious movements are diverse, and no single set of beliefs, practices, ortexts are shared by them all.[75]
Founder of Wicca Gerald Gardner helped to revive ancient polytheism.[76][77]EnglishoccultistDion Fortune was a major populiser ofsoft polytheism. In her novelThe Sea Priestess, she wrote, "All gods are one god, and all goddesses are one goddess, and there is one initiator."[78]
Reconstructionist polytheists apply scholarly disciplines such ashistory,archaeology, andlanguage study to revive ancient, traditional religions that have been fragmented, damaged, or even destroyed, such asNorse Paganism,Roman andCeltic. A reconstructionist endeavors to revive and reconstruct an authentic practice based on the ancestors' ways but workable in contemporary life. These polytheists sharply differ from neopagans in that they consider their religion not only as inspired by historical religions but, in many cases, as a continuation or revival of those religions.[79][self-published source?]
Wicca is aduotheistic faith created byGerald Gardner that allows for polytheism.[80][81][82] Wiccans specifically worship the Lord and Lady of the Isles (their names are oathbound).[81][82][83][84] It is anorthopraxic mystery religion that requires initiation to the priesthood to consider oneself Wiccan.[81][82][85] Wicca emphasizes duality and the cycle of nature.[81][82][86]
The term "polytheist" is sometimes used bySunni Muslim extremist groups such asIslamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) as aderogatory reference toShiite Muslims, whom they view as having "strayed from Islam's monotheistic creed because of the reverence they show for historical figures, likeImam Ali".[90]
ProfessorPaul Vitz, an opponent ofSelfism [sic], viewed America as a "most polytheistic nation".[91]
Polydeism (from theGreek πολύpoly ("many") andLatindeus meaning god) is aportmanteau referencing a polytheistic form ofdeism, encompassing the belief that theuniverse was the collective creation of multiplegods, each of whom created a piece of the universe ormultiverse and then ceased to intervene in its evolution. This concept addresses an apparent contradiction in deism, that a monotheistic God created the universe, but now expresses no apparent interest in it, by supposing that if the universe is the construct of many gods, none of them would have an interest in the universe as a whole.
Creighton University Philosophy professorWilliam O. Stephens,[92] who has taught this concept, suggests thatC. D. Broad projected this concept[93] in Broad's 1925 article, "The Validity of Belief in a Personal God".[94] Broad noted that the arguments for theexistence of God only tend to prove that "a designing mindhad existed in the past, not that itdoes exist now. It is quite compatible with this argument that God should have died long ago, or that he should have turned his attention to other parts of the Universe", and notes in the same breath that "there is nothing in the facts to suggest that there is only one such being".[95] Stephens contends that Broad, in turn, derived the concept fromDavid Hume. Stephens states:
David Hume's criticisms of theargument from design include the argument that, for all we know, a committee of very powerful, but not omnipotent, divine beings could have collaborated in creating the world, but then afterwards left it alone or even ceased to exist. This would be polydeism.
This use of the term appears to originate at least as early asRobert M. Bowman Jr.'s 1997 essay,Apologetics from Genesis to Revelation.[96] Bowman wrote:
Materialism (illustrated by theEpicureans), represented today byatheism,skepticism, and deism. The materialist may acknowledge superior beings, but they do not believe in a Supreme Being. Epicureanism was founded about 300 BC byEpicurus. Their world view might be called "polydeism:" there are many gods, but they are merely superhuman beings; they are remote, uninvolved in the world, posing no threat and offering no hope to human beings. Epicureans regarded traditional religion andidolatry as harmless enough as long as the gods were not feared or expected to do or say anything.
SociologistSusan Starr Sered used the term in her 1994 book,Priestess, Mother, Sacred Sister: Religions Dominated by Women, which includes a chapter titled, "No Father in Heaven: Androgyny and Polydeism". She writes that she has "chosen to gloss on 'polydeism' a range of beliefs in more than one supernatural entity".[97] Sered used this term in a way that would encompass polytheism, rather than exclude much of it, as she intended to capture both polytheistic systems and nontheistic systems that assert the influence of "spirits or ancestors".[97] This use of the term, however, does not accord with the historical misuse ofdeism as a concept to describe an absentcreator god.
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^Goel, Sita Ram (1987).Defence of Hindu Society. New Delhi, India: Voice of India. Archived fromthe original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved23 August 2011.
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^abcdHutton, Ronald (2003).The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford Paperbacks.ISBN0192854496.
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^Gardner, Gerald (1982).The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns. pp. 21–22,28–29, 69, 116.ISBN0939708027.
^Gardner, Gerald (1982).The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns.ISBN0939708027.
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