The nativePolish name for Poland isPolska.[19] The name is derived from thePolans, aWest Slavic tribe who inhabited theWarta River basin of present-dayGreater Poland region (6th–8th century CE).[20] The tribe's name stems from theProto-Slavic nounpole meaning field, which itself originates from theProto-Indo-European word*pleh₂- indicating flatland.[21] The etymology alludes to thetopography of the region and the flat landscape of Greater Poland.[22][23] During theMiddle Ages, theLatin formPolonia was widely used throughout Europe.[24]
The country's alternative archaic name isLechia and its root syllable remains in official use in several languages, notablyHungarian,Lithuanian, andPersian.[25] Theexonym possibly derives from eitherLech, a legendary ruler of theLechites, or from theLendians, a West Slavic tribe that dwelt on the south-easternmost edge ofLesser Poland.[26][27] The origin of the tribe's name lies in theOld Polish wordlęda (plain).[28] Initially, both namesLechia andPolonia were used interchangeably when referring to Poland by chroniclers during theMiddle Ages.[29]
The firstStone Age archaic humans andHomo erectus species settled what was to become Poland approximately 500,000 years ago, though the ensuing hostile climate prevented early humans from founding more permanent encampments.[30] The arrival ofHomo sapiens andanatomically modern humans coincided with the climatic discontinuity at the end of theLast Glacial Period (Northern Polish glaciation 10,000 BC), when Poland became habitable.[31]Neolithic excavations indicated broad-ranging development in that era; the earliest evidence of European cheesemaking (5500 BC) was discovered in PolishKuyavia,[32] and theBronocice pot is incised with the earliest known depiction of what may be a wheeled vehicle (3400 BC).[33]
Throughoutantiquity (400 BC–500 AD), many distinct ancient populations inhabited the territory of present-day Poland, notablyCeltic,Scythian,Germanic,Sarmatian,Baltic andSlavic tribes.[37] Furthermore, archaeological findings confirmed the presence ofRoman Legions sent to protect theamber trade.[38] ThePolish tribes emerged following thesecond wave of the Migration Period around the 6th century AD;[24] they wereSlavic and may have included assimilated remnants of peoples that earlier dwelled in the area.[39][40] Beginning in the early 10th century, thePolans would come to dominate otherLechitic tribes in the region, initially forming a tribal federation and later a centralised monarchical state.[41]
Poland under the rule ofMieszko I, whose acceptance of Christianity under the auspices of theRoman Church and theBaptism of Poland marked the beginning of statehood in 966
Poland began to form into a recognisable unitary and territorial entity around the middle of the 10th century under thePiast dynasty.[42] In 966 the ruler of the Polans,Mieszko I, accepted Christianity under the auspices of theRoman Church with theBaptism of Poland.[43] In 968, a missionarybishopric was established inPoznań. Anincipit titledDagome iudex first defined Poland's geographical boundaries with its capital inGniezno and affirmed that its monarchy was under the protection of theApostolic See.[44] The country's early origins were described byGallus Anonymus inGesta principum Polonorum, the oldest Polish chronicle.[45] An important national event of the period was themartyrdom ofSaint Adalbert, who was killed byPrussian pagans in 997 and whose remains were reputedly bought back for their weight in gold by Mieszko's successor,Bolesław I the Brave.[44]
Casimir III the Great is the only Polish king to receive the title ofGreat. He built extensively during his reign, and reformed the Polish army along with the country's legal code, 1333–70
In the first half of the 13th century,Henry I the Bearded andHenry II the Pious aimed to unite the fragmented dukedoms, but theMongol invasion and the death of Henry II inbattle hindered the unification.[56][57] As a result of the devastation which followed, depopulation and the demand for craft labour spurred a migration ofGerman and Flemish settlers into Poland, which was encouraged by the Polish dukes.[58] In 1264, theStatute of Kalisz introduced unprecedented autonomy for thePolish Jews, who came to Poland fleeing persecution elsewhere in Europe.[59]
Poland was developing as afeudal state, with a predominantly agricultural economy and an increasingly powerfullanded nobility that confined the population to private manorial farmstead known asfolwarks.[73] In 1493,John I Albert sanctioned the creation of abicameral parliament (the Sejm) composed of a lower house, the chamber of deputies, and an upper house, the chamber of senators.[74] TheNihil novi act adopted by the PolishGeneral Sejm in 1505, transferred most of thelegislative power from the monarch to the parliament, an event which marked the beginning of the period known asGolden Liberty, when the state was ruled by the seemingly free and equalPolish nobles.[75]
The 16th century sawProtestant Reformation movements making deep inroads into Polish Christianity, which resulted in the establishment of policies promoting religious tolerance, unique in Europe at that time.[76] This tolerance allowed the country to avoid the religious turmoil andwars of religion that beset Europe.[76] In Poland,Nontrinitarian Christianity became the doctrine of the so-calledPolish Brethren, who separated from theirCalvinist denomination and became the co-founders of globalUnitarianism.[77]
TheUnion of Lublin of 1569 established thePolish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a unified federal state with anelective monarchy that was largely governed by the nobility.[78] The latter coincided with a period of prosperity. The Polish-dominated union thereafter became a leading power and a major cultural entity, exercising political control over parts of Central,Eastern,Southeastern and Northern Europe. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth occupied approximately 1 million km2 (390,000 sq mi)at its peak and was the largest state in Europe.[79][80] Simultaneously, Poland imposedPolonisation policies in newly acquired territories which were met with resistance from ethnic and religious minorities.[78]
Theroyal election of 1764 resulted in the elevation ofStanisław II Augustus Poniatowski to the monarchy.[95] His candidacy was extensively funded by his sponsor and former lover, EmpressCatherine II of Russia.[96] The new king maneuvered between his desire to implement necessary modernising reforms, and the necessity to remain at peace with surrounding states.[97] His ideals led to the formation of the 1768Bar Confederation, a rebellion directed against the Poniatowski and all external influence, which ineptly aimed to preserve Poland's sovereignty and privileges held by the nobility.[98] The failed attempts at government restructuring as well as the domestic turmoil provoked its neighbours to invade.[99]
In 1772, theFirst Partition of the Commonwealth by Prussia, Russia and Austria took place, an act which thePartition Sejm, under considerable duress, eventually ratified as afait accompli.[100] Disregarding the territorial losses, in 1773 a plan of critical reforms was established, in which theCommission of National Education, the first government education authority in Europe, was inaugurated.[101] Corporal punishment of schoolchildren was officially prohibited in 1783. Poniatowski was the head figure of theEnlightenment, encouraged the development of industries, and embraced republicanneoclassicism.[102] For his contributions to the arts and sciences he was awarded aFellowship of the Royal Society.[103]
Chief of State MarshalJózef Piłsudski was a hero of the Polish independence campaign and the nation's premiere statesman from 1918 until his death on 12 May 1935
The inter-war period heralded a new era of Polish politics. Whilst Polish political activists had faced heavy censorship in the decades up untilWorld War I, a new political tradition was established in the country. Many exiled Polish activists, such asIgnacy Jan Paderewski, who would later become prime minister, returned home. A significant number of them then went on to take key positions in the newly formed political and governmental structures. Tragedy struck in 1922 whenGabriel Narutowicz, inaugural holder of the presidency, was assassinated at theZachęta Gallery in Warsaw by a painter and right-wing nationalistEligiusz Niewiadomski.[122]
In 1926, theMay Coup, led by the hero of the Polish independence campaign MarshalJózef Piłsudski, turned rule of the Second Polish Republic over to the nonpartisanSanacja (Healing) movement to prevent radical political organisations on both the left and the right from destabilising the country.[123] By the late 1930s, due to increased threats posed by political extremism inside the country, the Polish government became increasingly heavy-handed, banning a number of radical organisations, including communist and ultra-nationalist political parties, which threatened the stability of the country.[124]
Thewartime resistance movement, and theArmia Krajowa (Home Army), fought against German occupation. It was one of the three largest resistance movements of the entire war, and encompassed a range of clandestine activities, which functioned as anunderground state complete withdegree-awarding universities anda court system.[134] The resistance was loyal to the exiled government and generally resented the idea of a communist Poland; for this reason, in the summer of 1944 it initiatedOperation Tempest, of which theWarsaw Uprising that began on 1 August 1944 is the best-known operation.[133][135]
Nazi German forces under orders fromAdolf Hitler set up six Germanextermination camps in occupied Poland, includingTreblinka,Majdanek andAuschwitz. The Germanstransported millions of Jews from across occupied Europe to be murdered in those camps.[136][137] Altogether, 3 million Polish Jews[138][139] – approximately 90% of Poland's pre-war Jewry – and between 1.8 and 2.8 million ethnic Poles[140][141][142] were killed during the Germanoccupation of Poland, including between 50,000 and 100,000 members of the Polishintelligentsia – academics, doctors, lawyers, nobility and priesthood. During the Warsaw Uprising alone, over 150,000 Polish civilians were killed, most were murdered by the Germans during theWola andOchota massacres.[143][144] Around 150,000 Polish civilians were killed by Soviets between 1939 and 1941 during the Soviet Union's occupation of eastern Poland (Kresy), and another estimated 100,000 Poles were murdered by theUkrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) between 1943 and 1944 in what became known as theWołyń Massacres.[145][146]Of all the countries in the war, Poland lost the highest percentage of its citizens: around 6 million perished – more than one-sixth of Poland's pre-war population –half of them Polish Jews.[147][148][149] About 90% of deaths were non-military in nature.[150]
At the insistence ofJoseph Stalin, theYalta Conference sanctioned the formation of a new provisional pro-Communist coalition government in Moscow, which ignored thePolish government-in-exile based in London. This action angered many Poles who considered it abetrayal by the Allies. In 1944, Stalin had made guarantees toChurchill andRoosevelt that he would maintain Poland's sovereignty and allow democratic elections to take place. However, upon achieving victory in 1945, the elections organised by the occupying Soviet authorities were falsified and were used to provide a veneer of legitimacy for Soviet hegemony over Polish affairs. The Soviet Union instituted a newcommunist government in Poland, analogous to much of the rest of theEastern Bloc.As elsewhere in Communist Europe, the Soviet influence over Poland was met witharmed resistance from the outset which continued into the 1950s.[155]
Despite widespread objections, the new Polish government accepted the Soviet annexation of the pre-war eastern regions of Poland[156] (in particular the cities ofWilno andLwów) and agreed to the permanent garrisoning ofRed Army units on Poland's territory. Military alignment within theWarsaw Pact throughout theCold War came about as a direct result of this change in Poland's political culture. In the European scene, it came to characterise the full-fledged integration of Poland into the brotherhood of communist nations.[157]
As of November 2023[update], theRussian invasion of Ukraine had led to 17 millionUkrainian refugees crossing the border to Poland.[175] As of November 2023[update], 0.9 million of those had stayed in Poland.[175] In October 2023, the ruling Law and Justice (PiS) party won the largest share of the vote in theelection, but lost its majority in parliament. In December 2023, Donald Tusk became the new Prime Minister leading a coalition made up ofCivic Coalition,Third Way, andThe Left. Law and Justice became the leading opposition party.[176]
Poland covers an administrative area of 312,722 km2 (120,743 sq mi), and is theninth-largest country in Europe. Approximately 311,895 km2 (120,423 sq mi) of the country's territory consists of land, 2,041 km2 (788 sq mi) is internal waters and 8,783 km2 (3,391 sq mi) is territorial sea.[177] Topographically, the landscape of Poland is characterised by diverselandforms,water bodies andecosystems.[178] The central and northern region bordering theBaltic Sea lie within the flatCentral European Plain, but its south is hilly and mountainous.[179] The averageelevation above the sea level is estimated at 173 metres.[177]
The mountainous belt in the extreme south of Poland is divided into two majormountain ranges; theSudetes in the west and theCarpathians in the east. The highest part of the Carpathian massif are theTatra Mountains, extending along Poland's southern border.[183] Poland's highest point isMount Rysy at 2,501 metres (8,205 ft) in elevation, located in the Tatras.[184] The highest summit of the Sudetes massif isMount Śnieżka at 1,603.3 metres (5,260 ft), shared with the Czech Republic.[185] The lowest point in Poland is situated atRaczki Elbląskie in theVistula Delta, which is 1.8 metres (5.9 ft) below sea level.[177]
Morskie Oko alpine lake in theTatra Mountains. Poland has one of the highest densities of lakes in the world
Poland'slongest rivers are theVistula, theOder, theWarta, and theBug.[177] The country also possesses one of the highest densities of lakes in the world, numbering around ten thousand and mostly concentrated in the north-eastern region ofMasuria, within theMasurian Lake District.[186] The largest lakes, covering more than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi), areŚniardwy andMamry, and the deepest isLake Hańcza at 108.5 metres (356 ft) in depth.[177]
The climate of Poland istemperate transitional, and varies fromoceanic in the north-west tocontinental in the south-east.[187] The mountainous southern fringes are situated within analpine climate.[187] Poland is characterised by warm summers, with a mean temperature of around 20 °C (68.0 °F) in July, and moderately cold winters averaging −1 °C (30.2 °F) in December.[188] The warmest and sunniest part of Poland isLower Silesia in the southwest and the coldest region is the northeast corner, aroundSuwałki inPodlaskie province, where the climate is affected bycold fronts fromScandinavia andSiberia.[189]Precipitation is more frequent during the summer months, with highest rainfall recorded from June to September.[188]
There is a considerable fluctuation in day-to-day weather and the arrival of a particular season can differ each year.[187]Climate change and other factors have further contributed to interannualthermal anomalies and increased temperatures; the average annual air temperature between 2011 and 2020 was 9.33 °C (48.8 °F), around 1.11 °C higher than in the 2001–2010 period.[189] Winters are also becoming increasingly drier, with lesssleet and snowfall.[187]
Poland'slegislative assembly is abicameral parliament consisting of a 460-member lower house (Sejm) and a 100-member upper house (Senate).[201] The Sejm is elected underproportional representation according to thed'Hondt method for vote-seat conversion.[202] The Senate is elected under thefirst-past-the-post electoral system, with one senator being returned from each of the one hundred constituencies.[203] The Senate has the right to amend or reject a statute passed by the Sejm, but the Sejm may override the Senate's decision with a majority vote.[204]
With the exception of ethnic minority parties, only candidates ofpolitical parties receiving at least 5% of the total national vote can enter the Sejm.[203] Both the lower and upper houses of parliament in Poland are elected for a four-year term and each member of the Polish parliament is guaranteedparliamentary immunity.[205] Under current legislation, a person must be 21 years of age or over to assume the position of deputy, 30 or over to become senator and 35 to run in a presidential election.[205]
Members of the Sejm and Senate jointly form theNational Assembly of the Republic of Poland.[206] The National Assembly, headed by theSejm Marshal, is formed on three occasions – when a new president takes theoath of office; when an indictment against the president is brought to theState Tribunal; and in case a president's permanent incapacity to exercise his duties due to the state of his health is declared.[206]
Poland is divided into 16 provinces or states known asvoivodeships.[207] As of 2022, the voivodeships are subdivided into 380 counties (powiats), which are further fragmented into 2,477 municipalities (gminas).[207] Major cities normally have the status of bothgmina andpowiat.[207] The provinces are largely founded on the borders ofhistoric regions, or named for individual cities.[208] Administrative authority at the voivodeship level is shared between a government-appointed governor (voivode), an elected regional assembly (sejmik) and avoivodeship marshal, an executive elected by the assembly.[208]
TheConstitution of 3 May adopted in 1791 was the first modern constitution in Europe.
TheConstitution of Poland is the enacted supreme law, and Polish judicature is based on the principle of civil rights, governed by the code ofcivil law.[210] The current democratic constitution was adopted by theNational Assembly of Poland on 2 April 1997; it guarantees amulti-party state with freedoms of religion, speech and gatherings, prohibits the practices of forcedmedical experimentation, torture orcorporal punishment, and acknowledges the inviolability of the home, the right to form trade unions, and the right tostrike.[211]
Poland has a lowhomicide rate at 0.7 murders per 100,000 people, as of 2018.[214] Rape, assault and violent crime remain at a very low level.[215] The country has imposed strict regulations onabortion, which is permitted only in cases of rape, incest or when the woman's life is in danger;congenital disorder is not covered by the law, prompting some women to seek abortion abroad.[216]
Poland is amiddle power and is transitioning into aregional power in Europe.[221][222] It has a total of 53 representatives in theEuropean Parliament as of 2024.Warsaw serves as the headquarters forFrontex, the European Union's agency for external border security as well asODIHR, one of the principal institutions of theOSCE.[223][224] Apart from the European Union, Poland has been a member ofNATO, the United Nations, and theWTO.
In recent years, Poland significantly strengthened itsrelations with the United States, thus becoming one of its closestallies and strategic partners in Europe.[225] Historically, Poland maintained strongcultural and political ties to Hungary; this special relationship was recognised by the parliaments of both countries in 2007 with the joint declaration of 23 March as "The Day of Polish-Hungarian Friendship".[226]
The Polish Armed Forces are composed of five branches – theLand Forces, theNavy, theAir Force, theSpecial Forces and theTerritorial Defence Force.[227] The military is subordinate to theMinistry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland.[227] However, its commander-in-chief in peacetime is the president, who nominates officers, the Minister for National Defence and the chief of staff.[227] Polish military tradition is generally commemorated by theArmed Forces Day, celebrated annually on 15 August.[228] In July 2024, the Polish Armed Forces had a combined strength of 216,100 active soldiers, making it the largest standing army in the European Union and the third largest inNATO.[229]
Poland ranks14th in the world in terms of military expenditures; the country allocated 4.12% of its total GDP on military spending, equivalent to approximately US$35 billion in 2024.[230] From 2022, Poland initiated a programme of mass modernisation of its armed forces, in close cooperation with American, South Korean and local Polishdefence manufacturers.[231] Also, the Polish military is set to increase its size to 250,000 enlisted and officers, and 50,000 defence force personnel.[232] According toSIPRI, the country exported €487 million worth of arms and armaments to foreign countries in 2020.[233]
Compulsorymilitary service for men, who previously had to serve for nine months, was discontinued in 2008.[234] Polish military doctrine reflects the same defensive nature as that of its NATO partners and the country actively hosts NATO'smilitary exercises.[235] Since 1953, the country has been a large contributor to various United Nations peacekeeping missions,[236] and currently maintains military presence in the Middle East, Africa, theBaltic states and southeastern Europe.[235]
Law enforcement in Poland is performed by several agencies which are subordinate to theMinistry of Interior and Administration – theState Police (Policja), assigned to investigate crimes or transgression; theMunicipal City Guard, which maintains public order; and several specialised agencies, such as thePolish Border Guard.[237] Private security firms are also common, although they possess no legal authority to arrest or detain a suspect.[237][238] Municipal guards are primarily headed by provincial, regional or city councils; individual guards are not permitted to carryfirearms unless instructed by the superior commanding officer.[239] Security service personnel conduct regular patrols in both large urban areas or smaller suburban localities.[240]
Poland is a regional European leader in terms offoreign direct investment[255] and possesses around 40 percent of the 500 biggest companies in the region by revenues whilst maintaining ahigh globalisation rate and relatively high economic competitiveness.[256][257] The country's largest firms compose theWIG20 andWIG30stock market indexes, which are traded on theWarsaw Stock Exchange.[258] TheCentral Statistical Office estimated that in 2014 there were 1,437 Polish corporations with interests in 3,194 foreign entities.[259] Poland also has the largest banking sector in Central Europe,[260] with 32.3 branches per 100,000 adults.[261] The monetary policy is determined by theNational Bank of Poland (NBP), which controls the issuing of the national currency.[254] It was the only European economy to have avoided therecession of 2008.[262] Since 2019, workers under the age of 26 are exempt from paying theincome tax.[263]
The country is the19th largest exporter of goods andservices in the world.[264] Exports of goods and services are valued at approximately 58% of GDP, as of 2023.[265] Poland's largest trade partners are Germany, the United Kingdom, theCzech Republic, France, Italy, theNetherlands, and theUnited States.[266] Among its lead exports are motor cars, buses, and vehicle-related accessories, machinery,electronics,electric batteries,home appliances, furniture, cosmetics, military equipment, andtobacco as well as materials such as silver,copper,steel,coal,zinc,tar, andcoke.[266] In 2023, the country produced 1300 tonnes of silver and was the 5th largest silver producer globally.[267] As of 2024, Poland holds the world's 12th largestgold reserve, estimated at 377 tonnes.[268]
In 2020, the total value of thetourism industry in Poland was 104.3 billionPLN, then equivalent to 4.5% of the Polish GDP.[269] Tourism contributes considerably to the overall economy and makes up a relatively large proportion of the country's service market.[270] Nearly 200,000 people were employed in theaccommodation and catering (hospitality) sector in 2020.[269] In 2021, Poland ranked12th most visited country in the world by international arrivals.[271]
Transport in Poland is provided by means ofrail,road,marine shipping andair travel. The country is part of EU'sSchengen Area and is an important transport hub due to its strategic geographical position in Central Europe.[276] Some of the longest European routes, including theE30 andE40, run through Poland. The country has a good network ofhighways consisting ofexpress roads andmotorways. As of August 2023, Poland has the world's21st-largest road network, maintaining over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) of highways in use.[277]
In 2022, the nation had 19,393 kilometres (12,050 mi) of railway track, the third longest in the European Union after Germany and France.[278] ThePolish State Railways (PKP) is the dominant railway operator, with certain major voivodeships or urban areas possessing their owncommuter andregional rail.[279] Poland has a number of international airports, the largest of which isWarsaw Chopin Airport.[280] It is the primary global hub forLOT Polish Airlines, the country'sflag carrier.[281]
The electricity generation sector in Poland is largelyfossil-fuel–based. Coal production in Poland is a major source of employment and the largest source of the nation'sgreenhouse gas emissions.[283] Many power plants nationwide use Poland's position as a major European exporter of coal to their advantage by continuing to use coal as the primary raw material in the production of their energy. The three largest Polish coal mining firms (Węglokoks,Kompania Węglowa andJSW) extract around 100 million tonnes of coal annually.[284] After coal, Polish energy supply relies significantly on oil—the nation is the third-largest buyer of Russian oil exports to the EU.[285]
The newEnergy Policy of Poland until 2040 (EPP2040) would reduce the share of coal andlignite in electricity generation by 25% from 2017 to 2030. The plan involves deploying new nuclear plants, increasing energy efficiency, and decarbonising the Polish transport system in order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and prioritise long-term energy security.[283][286]
Poland's tertiary education institutions; traditionaluniversities, as well as technical, medical, and economic institutions, employ around tens of thousands of researchers and staff members. There are hundreds of research and development institutes.[292] However, in the 19th and 20th centuries many Polish scientists worked abroad; one of the most important of these exiles wasMarie Curie, a physicist and chemist who lived much of her life in France. In 1925, she established Poland'sRadium Institute.[287]
Population of Poland from 1900 to 2010 in millions of inhabitants
Around 60% of the country's population lives in urban areas or major cities and 40% in rural zones.[297] In 2020, 50.2% of Poles resided indetached dwellings and 44.3% in apartments.[298] The most populous administrative province or state is theMasovian Voivodeship and the most populous city is the capital,Warsaw, at 1.8 million inhabitants with a further 2–3 million people living in itsmetropolitan area.[299][300][301] Themetropolitan area ofKatowice is the largest urbanconurbation with a population between 2.7 million[302] and 5.3 million residents.[303] Population density is higher in the south of Poland and mostly concentrated between the cities ofWrocław andKraków.[304]
In the2011 Polish census, 37,310,341 people reportedPolish identity, 846,719Silesian, 232,547Kashubian and 147,814German. Otheridentities were reported by 163,363 people (0.41%) and 521,470 people (1.35%) did not specify any nationality.[305] Official population statistics do not include migrant workers who do not possess a permanent residency permit orKarta Polaka.[306] More than 1.7 millionUkrainian citizens worked legally in Poland in 2017.[307] The number of migrants is rising steadily; the country approved 504,172 work permits for foreigners in 2021 alone.[308] According to theCouncil of Europe, 12,731Romani people live in Poland.[309]
John Paul II, born Karol Wojtyła, held the papacy between 1978 and 2005 and was the firstPole to become aRoman Catholic Pope.
According to the 2021 census, 71.3% of all Polish citizens adhere to theRoman Catholic Church, with 6.9% identifying as having no religion and 20.6% refusing to answer.[3]
Poland is one of themost religious countries in Europe, where Roman Catholicism remains a part of national identity and Polish-bornPope John Paul II is widely revered.[319][320] In 2015, 61.6% of respondents outlined that religion is of high or very high importance.[321] However, church attendance has greatly decreased in recent years; only 28% of Catholics attendedmass weekly in 2021, down from around half in 2000.[322] According toThe Wall Street Journal, "Of [the] more than 100 countries studied by thePew Research Center in 2018, Poland wassecularising the fastest, as measured by the disparity between the religiosity of young people and their elders."[319]
Freedom of religion in Poland is guaranteed by the Constitution, and Poland'sconcordat with theHoly See enables the teaching of religion in public schools.[323] Historically, the Polish state maintained a high degree ofreligious tolerance and provided asylum for refugees fleeing religious persecution in other parts of Europe.[324] Poland hosted Europe's largestJewish diaspora, and the country was a centre ofAshkenazi Jewish culture and traditional learning until theHolocaust.[325]
Medical service providers andhospitals in Poland are subordinate to theMinistry of Health; it provides administrative oversight and scrutiny of general medical practice, and is obliged to maintain a high standard ofhygiene and patient care. Poland has auniversal healthcare system based on an all-inclusiveinsurance system; state subsidised healthcare is available to all citizens covered by the general health insurance programme of theNational Health Fund (NFZ). Private medical complexes exist nationwide; over 50% of the population uses both public and private sectors.[327][328][329]
According to theHuman Development Report from 2020, the average life expectancy at birth is 79 years (around 75 years for an infant male and 83 years for an infant female);[330] the country has a lowinfant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 births).[331] In 2019, the principal cause of death wasischemic heart disease; diseases of thecirculatory system accounted for 45% of all deaths.[332] In the same year, Poland was also the 15th-largest importer ofmedications and pharmaceutical products.[333]
The framework for primary, secondary and higher tertiary education are established by theMinistry of Education and Science. One year of kindergarten iscompulsory for six-year-olds.[339][340] Primary education traditionally begins at the age of seven, although children aged six can attend at the request of their parents or guardians.[340] Elementary school spans eight grades and secondary schooling is dependent on student preference – a four-year high school (liceum), a five-year technical school (technikum) or variousvocational studies (szkoła branżowa) can be pursued by individual pupils.[340] A liceum or technikum is concluded with a maturity exit exam (matura), which must be passed in order to apply for a university or other institutions of higher learning.[341]
The culture of Poland is closely connected with its intricate 1,000-yearhistory, and forms an important constituent in theWestern civilisation.[349] The Poles take great pride in their national identity which is often associated with the colours white and red, and exuded by the expressionbiało-czerwoni ("whitereds").[350] National symbols, chiefly the crownedwhite-tailed eagle, are often visible on clothing, insignia and emblems.[351] The architectural monuments of great importance are protected by theNational Heritage Board of Poland.[352] Over 100 of the country's most significant tangible wonders were enlisted onto theHistoric Monuments Register,[353] with further 17 being recognised byUNESCO as World Heritage Sites.[354]
Particular traditions and superstitious customs observed in Poland are not found elsewhere in Europe. Though Christmas Eve (Wigilia) is not a public holiday, it remains the most memorable day of the entire year.Trees are decorated on 24 December, hay is placed under the tablecloth to resemble Jesus'manger,Christmas wafers (opłatek) are shared between gathered guests and atwelve-dish meatless supper is served that same evening when thefirst star appears.[356] An empty plate and seat are symbolically left at the table for an unexpected guest.[357] On occasion,carolers journey around smaller towns with a folkTuroń creature until theLent period.[358]
A widely-populardoughnut and sweet pastry feast occurs onFat Thursday, usually 52 days prior to Easter.[359]Eggs forHoly Sunday are painted and placed in decoratedbaskets that are previously blessed by clergymen in churches onEaster Saturday. Easter Monday is celebrated with pagandyngus festivities, where the youth is engaged in water fights.[360][359] Cemeteries and graves of the deceased are annually visited by family members on All Saints' Day; tombstones are cleaned as a sign of respect and candles are lit to honour the dead on an unprecedented scale.[361]
The origins of Polish music can be traced to the 13th century; manuscripts have been found inStary Sącz containingpolyphonic compositions related to the ParisianNotre Dame School. Other early compositions, such as the melody ofBogurodzica andGod Is Born (a coronationpolonaise tune for Polish kings by an unknown composer), may also date back to this period, however, the first known notable composer,Nicholas of Radom, lived in the 15th century.Diomedes Cato, a native-born Italian who lived in Kraków, became a renowned lutenist at the court of Sigismund III; he not only imported some of the musical styles from southern Europe but blended them with native folk music.[363]
In the 17th and 18th centuries, Polish baroque composers wroteliturgical music and secular compositions such as concertos andsonatas for voices or instruments. At the end of the 18th century, Polish classical music evolved into national forms like thepolonaise.Wojciech Bogusławski is accredited with composing the first Polish national opera, titledKrakowiacy i Górale, which premiered in 1794.[364]
Poland today has an active music scene, with the jazz and metal genres being particularly popular among the contemporary populace. Polish jazz musicians such asKrzysztof Komeda created a unique style, which was most famous in the 1960s and 1970s and continues to be popular to this day. Poland has also become a major venue for large-scale music festivals, chief among which are thePol'and'Rock Festival,[365]Open'er Festival,Opole Festival andSopot Festival.[366]
Traditional dishes are hearty and abundant in pork, potatoes, eggs, cream, mushrooms, regional herbs, and sauce.[406] Polish food is characteristic for its various kinds ofkluski (soft dumplings),soups, cereals and a variety of breads andopen sandwiches. Salads, includingmizeria (cucumber salad),coleslaw,sauerkraut, carrot andseared beets, are common. Meals conclude with a dessert such assernik (cheesecake),makowiec (poppy seed roll), ornapoleonka (mille-feuille) cream pie.[407]
Traditional alcoholic beverages include honeymead, widespread since the 13th century,beer, wine andvodka.[408] The world's first written mention of vodka originates from Poland.[409] The most popular alcoholic drinks at present are beer and wine which took over from vodka more popular in the years 1980–1998.[410]Grodziskie, sometimes referred to as "Polish Champagne", is an example of a historical beer style from Poland.[411] Tea remains common in Polish society since the 19th century, whilst coffee is drunk widely since the 18th century.[412]
Several Polish designers and stylists left a legacy of beauty inventions and cosmetics; includingHelena Rubinstein andMaksymilian Faktorowicz, who created a line of cosmetics company in California known asMax Factor and formulated the term "make-up" which is now widely used as an alternative for describing cosmetics.[413] Faktorowicz is also credited with inventing moderneyelash extensions.[414][415] As of 2020, Poland possesses the sixth-largest cosmetic market in Europe.Inglot Cosmetics is the country's largest beauty products manufacturer,[416] and the retail storeReserved is the country's most successful clothing store chain.[417]
Historically, fashion has been an important aspect of Poland's national consciousness orcultural manifestation, and the country developed its own style known asSarmatism at the turn of the 17th century.[418] The national dress and etiquette of Poland also reached the court atVersailles, where French dresses inspired by Polish garments includedrobe à la polonaise and thewitzchoura. The scope of influence also entailed furniture; rococoPolish beds withcanopies became fashionable in French châteaus.[419] Sarmatism eventually faded in the wake of the 18th century.[418]
In the 21st century, the country has seen a growth of popularity of tennis and produced a number of successful tennis players including World No. 1Iga Świątek, winner of fiveGrand Slam singles titles; former World No. 2Agnieszka Radwanska, winner of 20 WTA career singles titles including2015 WTA Finals; Top 10 ATP playerHubert Hurkacz; former World No. 1 doubles playerŁukasz Kubot, winner of two Grand Slam doubles titles andJan Zieliński, winner of two Grand Slam mixed doubles titles. Poland also won the2015 Hopman Cup with Agnieszka Radwańska andJerzy Janowicz representing the country.[435][436]
Poles made significant achievements in mountaineering, in particular, in theHimalayas and the winter ascending of theeight-thousanders (e.g.Jerzy Kukuczka,Krzysztof Wielicki,Wanda Rutkiewicz). Polish mountains are one of the tourist attractions of the country. Hiking, climbing, skiing and mountain biking and attract numerous tourists every year from all over the world.[275] Water sports are the most popular summer recreation activities, with ample locations for fishing, canoeing, kayaking, sailing and windsurfing especially in the northern regions of the country.[437]
^Multiple national identity was available in the census.
^"The dukes (dux) were originally the commanders of an armed retinue (drużyna) with which they broke the authority of the chieftains of the clans, thus transforming the original tribal organisation into a territorial unit."[10]
^"Mieszko accepted Roman Catholicism via Bohemia in 966. A missionary bishopric directly dependent on the papacy was established in Poznań. This was the true beginning of Polish history, for Christianity was a carrier of Western civilisation with which Poland was henceforth associated."[10]
^Veser, Ernst[in German] (23 September 1997)."Semi-Presidentialism-Duverger's Concept — A New Political System Model"(PDF). Department of Education, School of Education,University of Cologne, zh. pp. 39–60. Retrieved21 August 2017.Duhamel has developed the approach further: He stresses that the French construction does not correspond to either parliamentary or the presidential form of government, and then develops the distinction of 'système politique' and 'régime constitutionnel'. While the former comprises the exercise of power that results from the dominant institutional practice, the latter is the totality of the rules for the dominant institutional practice of power. In this way, France appears as 'presidentialist system' endowed with a 'semi-presidential regime' (1983: 587). By this standard, he recognizes Duverger'spléiade as semi-presidential regimes, as well as Poland, Romania, Bulgaria and Lithuania (1993: 87).
^Shugart, Matthew Søberg (December 2005)."Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns"(PDF).French Politics.3 (3):323–351.doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. Retrieved21 August 2017.Even if the president has no discretion in the forming of cabinets or the right to dissolve parliament, his or her constitutional authority can be regarded as 'quite considerable' in Duverger's sense if cabinet legislation approved in parliament can be blocked by the people's elected agent. Such powers are especially relevant if an extraordinary majority is required to override a veto, as in Mongolia, Poland, and Senegal. In these cases, while the government is fully accountable to Parliament, it cannot legislate without taking the potentially different policy preferences of the president into account.
^Jurek, Krzysztof (2019).Poznać przeszłość 1. Karty pracy ucznia. Poziom podstawowy (in Polish). Warszawa (Warsaw): Nowa Era. p. 93.ISBN978-83-267-3653-7.
^Brather, Sebastian (2004). "The Archaeology of the Northwestern Slavs (Seventh To Ninth Centuries)".East Central Europe.31 (1):78–81.doi:10.1163/187633004x00116.
^Knoll, Paul W.; Schaer, Frank, eds. (2003),Gesta Principum Polonorum / The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles, Central European Medieval Texts, General Editors János M. Bak, Urszula Borkowska, Giles Constable & Gábor Klaniczay, vol. 3, Budapest/ New York: Central European University Press, pp. 87–211,ISBN978-963-9241-40-4
^Urbańczyk, Przemysław (2017).Bolesław Chrobry – lew ryczący (in Polish). Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika. pp. 309–310.ISBN978-8-323-13886-0.
^Halecki, Oscar (1991).Jadwiga of Anjou and the Rise of East-Central Europe. Polish Institute of Arts and Sciences of America. pp. 116–117, 152.ISBN978-0-88033-206-4.
^Norman Davies (1996).Europe: a history. Oxford University Press. p. 428.ISBN978-0-19-820171-7.By 1490 the Jagiellons controlled Poland–Lithuania, Bohemia, and Hungary, but not the Empire.
^Józef Andrzej Gierowski –Historia Polski 1764–1864 [History of Poland 1764–1864], Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe (Polish Scientific Publishers PWN), Warszawa 1986,ISBN978-83-01-03732-1, pp. 1–74
^Gardner, Monica Mary (1942)."The Rising of Kościuszko (Chapter VII)".Kościuszko: A Biography. G. Allen & Unwin., ltd, 136 pages.Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved29 October 2014 – via Project Gutenberg.
^According toMargaret MacMillan, "The rebirth of Poland was one of the great stories of theParis Peace Conference." Margaret MacMillan,Paris 1919: Six Months that Changed the World (2001), p. 208.
^Glenn E. Curtis (1994).Poland: A Country Study. Vol. 550 (3 ed.). Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress. p. 29.ISBN978-0-8444-0827-9.
^Piotr S. Wandycz (2009). "The Second Republic, 1921–1939".The Polish Review.54 (2). University of Illinois Press:159–171.JSTOR25779809.
^Marjan Kukiel (1929). "The Polish-Soviet Campaign of 1920".The Slavonic and East European Review.8 (22). Modern Humanities Research Association:48–65.JSTOR4202361.
^Bitter glory: Poland and its fate, 1918 to 1939; p. 179
^Robert Machray (November 1930). "Pilsudski, the Strong Man of Poland".Current History.33 (2). University of California Press:195–199.doi:10.1525/curh.1930.33.2.195.JSTOR45333442.
^Brian Porter-Szücs (6 January 2014).Poland in the Modern World: Beyond Martyrdom. John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-118-59808-5.
^Browning, Christopher R.; Matthäus, Jürgen (2004).The origins of the Final Solution: the evolution of Nazi Jewish policy, September 1939 – March 1942. Comprehensive history of the Holocaust. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.ISBN978-0-8032-1327-2.
^Snyder, Timothy (2015).Black earth: the Holocaust as history and warning (First ed.). New York: Tim Duggan Books.ISBN978-1-101-90345-2.
^Materski & Szarota (2009)Quote: Liczba Żydów i Polaków żydowskiego pochodzenia, obywateli II Rzeczypospolitej, zamordowanych przez Niemców sięga 2,7- 2,9 mln osób.Translation: The number of Jewish victims is estimated at 2,9 million. This was about 90% of the 3.3 million Jews living in prewar Poland.Source: IPN.
^Materski & Szarota (2009)Quote: Łączne straty śmiertelne ludności polskiej pod okupacją niemiecką oblicza się obecnie na ok. 2 770 000.Translation: Current estimate is roughly 2,770,000 victims of German occupation. This was 11.3% of the 24.4 million ethnic Poles in prewar Poland.
^Grzegorz Motyka, Od rzezi wołyńskiej do akcji "Wisła". Konflikt polsko-ukraiński 1943–1947. Kraków 2011, p. 447. See also: Book review by Tomasz Stańczyk: "Grzegorz Motyka oblicza, że w latach 1943–1947 z polskich rąk zginęło 11–15 tys. Ukraińców. Polskie straty to 76–106 tys. zamordowanych, w znakomitej większości podczas rzezi wołyńskiej i galicyjskiej."
^"What were the Volhynian Massacres?".1943 Wołyń Massacres Truth and Remembrance. Institute of National Remembrance. 2013.Archived from the original on 13 August 2013. Retrieved17 July 2016.
^Kowalik, Tadeusz (2011).From Solidarity to Sell-Out: The Restoration of Capitalism in Poland. New York, NY: Monthly Review Press.
^Spieser, Catherine (April 2007). "Labour Market Policies in Post-communist Poland: Explaining the Peaceful Institutionalisation of Unemployment".Politique européenne.21 (1):97–132.doi:10.3917/poeu.021.0097.
^Poláčková, Hana (1994). "Regional Cooperation in Central Europe: Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic and Slovakia: from Visegrad to CEFTA".Perspectives (3).SAGE Publishers:117–129.JSTOR23615759.
^Szczerbiak, Aleks (September 2004). "History Trumps Government Unpopularity: The June 2003 Polish EU Accession Referendum".West European Politics.27 (4):671–690.doi:10.1080/0140238042000249876.S2CID153998856.
^Kundera, Jaroslaw (September 2014). "Poland in the European Union. The economic effects of ten years of membership".Rivista di Studi Politici Internazionali.81 (3):377–396.JSTOR43580712.
^Christine Zuchora-Walske (2013)."The Lakes Region".Poland. ABDO Publishing. p. 28.ISBN978-1-61480-877-0.Archived from the original on 24 July 2023. Retrieved24 July 2023.Insert: Poland is home to 9,300 lakes. Finland is the only European nation with a higher density of lakes than Poland.
^abZbigniew Ustrunul; Agnieszka Wypych; Ewa Jakusik; Dawid Biernacik; Danuta Czekierda; Anna Chodubska (2020).Climate of Poland(PDF) (Report). Institute of Meteorology and Water Management – National Research Institute (IMGW). p. 7.Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 June 2022. Retrieved3 April 2022.
^Milewski, Wawrzyniec (2017).Forests in Poland 2017(PDF). Warsaw (Warszawa): State Forests Information Centre. p. 8.ISBN978-83-65659-23-1.Archived(PDF) from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved3 April 2022.
^Aniskiewicz, Alena (2016)."That's Polish: Exploring the History of Poland's National Emblems".culture.pl. Adam Mickiewicz Institute.Archived from the original on 3 April 2022. Retrieved3 April 2022."A white eagle [...], the profile of a shaggy bison in a field of grass. These are emblems of Poland". "Nation's (somewhat disputed) national flower – the corn poppy".
^Kamarad, Ewa; Wysocka-Bar, Anna (2020)."General Introduction, s. 3".Private International Law in Poland. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International.ISBN978-94-035-2961-5.Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Kamarad, Ewa; Wysocka-Bar, Anna (2020)."General Introduction, s. 2".Private International Law in Poland. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International.ISBN978-94-035-2961-5.Archived from the original on 2 October 2023. Retrieved24 July 2023.
^Nations, United (2020)."Human Development Indicators – Poland".Human Development Reports. United Nations Development Programme.Archived from the original on 28 January 2019. Retrieved16 December 2020.
^Government of Poland (2019).Eksport uzbrojenia i sprzętu wojskowego Polski(PDF) (Report). Warszawa (Warsaw): Ministerstwo Spraw Zagranicznych MSZ (Ministry of Foreign Affairs). p. 4.Archived(PDF) from the original on 28 March 2022. Retrieved24 March 2022.
^abNarodowego, Biuro Bezpieczeństwa."Potencjał ochronny".Biuro Bezpieczeństwa Narodowego. Archived fromthe original on 24 January 2022. Retrieved2 December 2020.
^IMD Editorial Office (2022)."World Competitiveness Ranking".imd.org. Lausanne: International Institute for Management Development. Retrieved21 February 2025.
^Thomas White International (September 2011),Prominent Banks in Poland. Emerging Market Spotlight. Banking Sector in Poland (Internet Archive). Retrieved 6 November 2014.
^"World Tourism Barometer"(PDF).World Tourism Organization.21 (2). May 2023. Archived from the original on 2 August 2023. Retrieved8 July 2024.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
^Pickup, Gilly (7 March 2019).The 50 Greatest Castles and Palaces of the World. Icon Books.ISBN978-1-78578-458-3.
^Neil Wilson; Tom Parkinson; Richard Watkins (2005). "The Eagles' Nests".Poland. Lonely Planet.ISBN978-1-74059-522-3.
^Nations, United (2020)."Poland – Human Development Indicators".Human Development Reports. United Nations Development Programme.Archived from the original on 28 January 2019. Retrieved16 December 2020.
^Many designs imitated the arcaded courtyard and arched loggias of the Wawel palace.Michael J. Mikoś."Renaissance Cultural Background".www.staropolska.pl. p. 9. Retrieved23 April 2009.
^Stanley, John (2004). "Reviewed Work: Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System? by Jan I.J. van der Meer".Canadian Slavonic Papers.46 (1/2):226–229.JSTOR40870954.
^Carter, F.W. (2006).Trade and Urban Development in Poland: An Economic Geography of Cracow, from Its Origins to 1795. Cambridge University Press. p. 364.ISBN978-0-521-02438-9.
^Peter Melville Logan, ed. (2014).The Encyclopedia of the Novel. Associate editors:Olakunle George, Susan Hegeman, EfraÃn Kristal. John Wiley & Sons.ISBN978-1-118-77907-1. Retrieved24 May 2017 – via Google Books.
^"Always home-made, tomato soup is one of the first things a Polish cook learns to prepare." [in:] Marc E. Heine. Poland. 1987
^"Tu się w lasy schroniły wygnane ze zbytkowych stołów, narodowe potrawy,Barszcz,Bigos,Zrazy,Pirogi iPieczeń" [in:] Jan N. de Bobrowicz. Maxymilian arcyksiąże Austryacki obrany Król polski. 1848. s. 74; "barszcz,rosół, sztuka mięsa, pieczenie huzarskie,bigos,pierogi,kiełbasa z kapustą, przede wszystkim zaś rozmaite kasze" Zbigniew Kuchowicz Obyczaje staropolskie XVII-XVIII wieku. 1975; "pieczeń cielęca pieczona (panierowana), pieczeń cielęca zapiekana w sosie beszamelowym, pieczeń huzarska (=pieczeń wołowa przekładana farszem), pieczeń rzymska (klops), pieczeń rzymska (klops z cielęciny) w sosie śmietanowym, pieczeń rzymska z królika " [in:] Stanisław Berger. Kuchnia polska. 1974.; Polish Holiday Cookery by Robert Strybel.Strybel, Robert (2003).Polish Holiday Cookery. Hippocrene Books.ISBN978-0-7818-0994-8 – via Google Books.
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