Thepolitics of Europe deals with the continually evolvingpolitics within the continent of Europe.[1] It is a topic far more detailed than other continents due to a number of factors including the long history of nation states in the region as well as the modern day trend towards increased political unity amongst the European states.
The current politics of Europe can be traced back tohistorical events within the continent. Likewisegeography,economy, andculture have contributed to the current political make-up of Europe.[1]
Modern European politics is dominated by theEuropean Union, since thefall of the Iron Curtain and the collapse of theEastern Bloc ofCommunist states.[2] After the end of theCold War, the EU expanded eastward to include the formerCommunist countries. As of 31 January 2020, the EU has 27 member states.[3]
However, there are a number of other international organizations made up predominantly of European nations, or explicitly claiming a European origin, including the 46-nationCouncil of Europe – the first post-war European organization, regarded as a fore-runner to the European Union – and the 57-nation Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), which also includes the United States and Canada, as well as some central Asian states.[4]
Despite vastly improved relations between Russia and the Western European states since the end of the cold war, recently tensions have risen over the spread of "Western" organizations, particularly the EU andNATO, eastwards into former USSR states.[4]
Many European states have either joined or stated their ambition to join the European Union.
There are few conflicts within Europe, although there remain problems in theWestern Balkans, theCaucasus, Northern Ireland in the United Kingdom and theBasque Country in Spain.[5]
According to 2007 data published in 2008 byFreedom House, the countries of Europe that cannot be classifiedliberalelectoral democracies are Azerbaijan, Belarus,Bosnia, Kazakhstan and Russia.[6]
European states are members of a large number of international organizations, mainly economical, although several are political, or both. The main political unions are detailed below.
TheEuropean Union, or EU, is apolitical union of 27 states. It has many activities, the most important being a common single market, consisting of a customs union, asingle currency (adopted by 20 of 27 member states),[7] aCommon Agricultural Policy and aCommon Fisheries Policy. The European Union also has various initiatives to co-ordinate activities of the member states.
The EU, considered as a unit, has the second largest economy in the world with a nominalGDP of 14.9trillion USD in 2020.[8] There is also a trend of moving towards increased co-operation in terms ofcommon defense andforeign policy.
The union has evolved over time from a primarily economic union to an increasingly political one. This trend is highlighted by the increasing number of policy areas that fall within EU competence; political power has tended to shift upwards from the member states to the EU. The further development of the political competencies of the EU is the subject of heavy debate within and between some member states.[9]
The Council of Europe brings together 46 European nations – the entire continent with the exception of Russia, which was expelled in 2022 following its invasion of Ukraine, and Belarus.[10] Founded in 1949, it is the oldest of the European organizations, embodying post-war hopes for peaceful co-operation, and is focused on the threestatutory aims of promoting human rights, democracy and the rule of law. It does not deal with economic matters or defense. Its main achievement is theEuropean Convention on Human Rights, which binds its 46 contracting parties to uphold the basic human rights of their citizens, and theStrasbourg Court which enforces it.[11] The Council of Europe is regarded as a classic intergovernmental organization, with a parliamentary arm, and has none of the supranational powers of the EU – thus it could be compared to a regional version of the United Nations.
The European Political Community (EPC) was formed in October 2022 after theRussian invasion of Ukraine.[12] The group first met in October 2022 in Prague, with participants from 44European countries, as well as representatives of theEuropean Union. Russia and Belarus were not invited to the inaugural meeting. It is envisioned that the group will meet twice in plenary session twice each year.
The Community of Democratic Choice (CDC) was formed in December 2005 at the primary instigation of Ukraine and Georgia, and composed of sixPost-Soviet states (Ukraine, Georgia, Moldova, and the threeBaltic Assembly members of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and three other countries of Eastern and Central Europe (Slovenia, Romania andNorth Macedonia). TheBlack Sea Forum (BSF) is a closely related organization. Observer countries include Armenia, Bulgaria, and Poland.[13]
Just like GUAM before it, this forum is largely seen as intending to counteract Russian influence in the area. This is the only international forum centered in the post-Soviet space in which the Baltic states also participate. The other three post-Soviet states in it are all members of GUAM.[14]
TheEurasian Economic Union is aneconomic union of post-Soviet states. The treaty aiming for the establishment of the EEU was signed on 29 May 2014 by the leaders ofBelarus,Kazakhstan andRussia, and came into force on 1 January 2015.[15] Treaties aiming forArmenia's andKyrgyzstan's accession to the Eurasian Economic Union were signed on 9 October 2014 and 23 December respectively. Armenia's accession treaty came into force on 2 January 2015.[16] Although Kyrgyzstan's accession treaty did not come into force until May 2015, provided it has been ratified,[17] it will participate in the EEU from the day of its establishment as an acceding state.[18][19][20][21][22]Moldova andTajikistan are prospective members.
TheEuronest Parliamentary Assembly is the inter-parliamentary forum in which members of theEuropean Parliament and the national parliaments of Ukraine, Moldova, Belarus, Armenia, Azerbaijan andGeorgia participate and forge closer political and economic ties with theEuropean Union.[23]
TheCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is aconfederation consisting of 12 of the 15 states of the former Soviet Union, (the exceptions being the threeBaltic states).[24] Although the CIS has few supranational powers, it is more than a purely symbolic organization and possesses coordinating powers in the realm of trade, finance, lawmaking and security. The most significant issue for the CIS is the establishment of a full-fledged free trade zone and economic union between the member states, launched in 2005. It has also promoted co-operation on democratization and cross-border crime prevention. Additionally, six members of the CIS signed on to a collective security treaty known as theCollective Security Treaty Organization.[25]
The post-Sovietdisputed states ofAbkhazia,South Ossetia, andTransnistria are all members of theCommunity for Democracy and Rights of Nations which aims to forge closer integration among the members.[26]
TheNorth Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military alliance of mainly European states, together with the United States and Canada. The organization was founded as acollective security measure followingSecond World War.[27]
This provision was intended so that if the Soviet Union launched an attack against the European allies of the United States, it would be treated as if it were an attack on the United States itself, which had the biggest military and could thus provide the most significant retaliation. However, the feared Soviet invasion of Europe never came. Instead, the provision was invoked for the first time in the treaty's history on 12 September 2001, in response to theattacks of 11 September on the United States the day before.
GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development is a regional organization of fourCIS states:Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova. The group was created as a way of countering the influence of Russia in the area, and it has received backing and encouragement from the United States .[28] Though at one point it was generally considered to have stagnated, recent developments have caused speculation on the possible revival of the organization.
These movements, seeking either autonomy or independence, vary greatly in their popular support and political profile, from fringe movements to mainstream campaigns.
Two of Belgium's political parties, theVlaams Belang andNew-Flemish Alliance, want Flanders, the northern part of the country, to become independent. Other Flemish parties plead for more regional autonomy. There is also a minor movement aiming at unification of Flanders with theNetherlands (seeGreater Netherlands).[29]
The autonomous Belgian region ofWallonia has an almost extinct movement seeking unification with France.
Some inhabitants ofRepublika Srpska, one of the two constituent entities inBosnia and Herzegovina (the other being theFederation of Bosnia and Herzegovina), the vast majority of them being ethnicSerbs, would opt for independence from Bosnia and Herzegovina and unification with Serbia. Republika Srpska comprises 49% of the territory of Bosnia and functions independently from the rest of the country in many spheres.[30] Even though independence is not on the official government agenda, Serbian politicians from the region see a link between a possible future status ofKosovo and the status of Republika Srpska.
Croats, who remain a constituent nation of Bosnia and Herzegovina remain united with ethnicBosniaks in a joint entity. Some BosnianCroat politicians have proposed a separate constituent entity for Croats along the lines of the Republika Srpska.[31]
The Danish territories ofGreenland andFaroe Islands have very strong independence movements. Greenland's autonomy marks it as aconstituent country under the Danish kingdom.[32]
TheÅland Islands has an autonomy. In 2003, theÅlandianseparatist partyÅlands Framtid was formed. There has not been much support for full independence since theIndependence of Finland, but in the last years the support has slightly grown.[33]
TheMediterranean island ofCorsica has a significant and growing group calling for independence from France. There are also movements in theBrittany region of northern France who wish to regain independence lost in 1532, and inSavoy in the south east, which was annexed to France following a disputed referendum in 1860.[34]
Parts ofNavarre,Basque Country andCatalonia cross into France.
South Ossetia declared independence on 28 November 1991, andAbkhazia on 23 July 1992. Following the brief2008 South Ossetia war, both entities werepartially recognised as independent by several UN member states.Georgia considers both "occupied territories" within its own borders. Both states participate in theCommunity for Democracy and Rights of Nations.[35]
TheBavaria Party is a small party that advocates Bavarian independence from Germany.
TheFree Saxons is a party in the GermanState of Saxony that supports Saxony independence from Germany.
Italy has been a unitaryparliamentary republic since 1946, when the monarchywas abolished. Thepresident of Italy,Sergio Mattarella since 2015, is Italy's head of state. The president is elected for a single seven-year term by theItalian Parliament and regional voters in joint session. Italy has a written democraticconstitution that resulted from aConstituent Assembly formed by representatives of theanti-fascist forces that contributed to the defeat of Nazi and Fascist forces during the liberation of Italy, in World War II.[36]
Italy has a parliamentary government based on a mixedproportional and majoritarian voting system. The parliament is perfectlybicameral; each house has the same powers. The two houses: theChamber of Deputies meets inPalazzo Montecitorio, and theSenate of the Republic inPalazzo Madama. A peculiarity of theItalian Parliament is the representation given toItalian citizens permanently living abroad: 8 Deputies and 4 Senators are elected in four distinctoverseas constituencies. There aresenators for life, appointed by the president "for outstanding patriotic merits in the social, scientific, artistic or literary field". Former presidents areex officio life senators.
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Theprime minister of Italy is head of government and has executive authority, but must receive a vote of approval from the Council of Ministers to execute most policies. The prime minister and cabinet are appointed by the president, and confirmed by a vote of confidence in parliament. To remain as prime minister, one has to pass votes of confidence. The role of prime minister is similar to most otherparliamentary systems, but they are not authorised to dissolve parliament. Another difference is that the political responsibility for intelligence is with the prime minister, who has exclusive power to coordinate intelligence policies, determine financial resources, strengthen cybersecurity, apply and protect State secrets, and authorise agents to carry out operations, in Italy or abroad.[37]
The major political parties are the Brothers of Italy,Democratic Party, and Five Star Movement. During the 2022 general election, these three and their coalitions won 357 of the 400 seats in the Chamber of Deputies, and 187 of 200 in the Senate. The centre-right coalition, which included Giorgia Meloni's Brothers of Italy,Matteo Salvini's League, Silvio Berlusconi'sForza Italia, andMaurizio Lupi'sUs Moderates, won most seats in parliament. The rest were taken by the centre-left coalition, which included the Democratic Party, theGreens and Left Alliance,Aosta Valley,More Europe,Civic Commitment, the Five Star Movement,Action – Italia Viva,South Tyrolean People's Party,South calls North, and theAssociative Movement of Italians Abroad.
The eastern Moldovan region ofTransnistria, which has a large ethnic Russian and Ukrainian population,[38] has declared independence from Moldova on 2 September 1990 and is a member of theCommunity for Democracy and Rights of Nations.[39] Despite having no control over the region, the Moldovan government refuses to recognise this claim. There is a significant movement in Moldova and Romania aiming at thereunification of the two countries.
TheFrisian National Party seeks more autonomy forFriesland without striving for complete independence. The preservation of Frisian culture is an important goal of the party.
Before theTreaty of Trianon afterWorld War I,Transylvania belonged toAustria-Hungary, and it contains minorities of ethnic Hungarians who desire regional autonomy in the country.[40]
Several of Russia's regions have independence movements, mostly in the state's north Caucasus border. The most notable of these areChechnya,Dagestan andIngushetia, which have well supported guerrilla groups involved in open conflict with the Russian authorities.[41]
SomeTatar people seek independence for the region ofTatarstan[42]
The status ofKosovo is the subject of a long-running political and territorial dispute between the Serbian (and previously, the Yugoslav) government and Kosovo's largely ethnic-Albanian population. International negotiations began in 2006 to determine final status (SeeKosovo status process). Kosovo declared independence on 17 February 2008.[43]
Within Spain there are independence movements in some of theautonomous regions, notably the regions that have co-official languages such asCatalonia, theBasque Country, andGalicia. These are mostly peaceful but some, such asETA andTerra Lliure, have used violent means.[44]
The Ukrainian autonomous region of Crimea has been annexed by the Russian Federation. The eastern, majorityRussophone part of the country is divided, and there are calls from some groups for the area to leave Ukraine and join Russia.[45]
In Northern Ireland,Sinn Féin and theSocial Democratic and Labour Party achieve between them around 40% of the vote at elections,[46][47] with both parties supporting Northern Ireland leaving the United Kingdom and joining Ireland to create aUnited Ireland.[48][49]
In Scotland, theScottish National Party (SNP), theScottish Greens, theScottish Socialist Party (SSP) and theAlba Party all supportScottish independence.[50] The SNP won an outright majority at the2011 Scottish Parliament election and held the2014 Scottish independence referendum, in the majority of Scottish voters backed remaining part of the United Kingdom by a 55% – 45% margin. There have, however, been revived calls for independence since the2016 EU referendum, which saw both Scotland and Northern Ireland vote to Remain.[51]
In Wales,Plaid Cymru and thePropel supportWelsh independence. Polls generally show support for Welsh independence at around 20–25%.[52]
In England, there are movements, such as theEnglish Democrats, calling for a devolvedEnglish Parliament.[53][54] There are also movements, such as theWessex Regionalists, calling for devolution of power to theEnglish regions. Movements seeking autonomy[55][56] or independence[57] includeMebyon Kernow in the peninsula ofCornwall.[58][59]
As of 24 June 2016, the United Kingdom officiallyvoted to leave the European Union. It is currently an ongoing process before the process of withdrawing officially begun on 29 March 2019. However, individual constituent countries within the United Kingdom, more specifically Scotland and Northern Ireland voted to remain in the European Union, prompting calls for another independence referendum in Scotland as well as raising the possibility of Irish reunification.[60]
Signed agreement opens up new possibilities for Kyrgyzstan and Armenia, starting from 1st January 2015
Kyrgyzstan is among the member countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEC). Kyrgyzstan will participate in the governing bodies of the EAEC since the start of the Union – from 1 January 2015.
Eurasian Economic Union added December 23 Armenia and Kyrgyzstan.
Kyrgyzstan on Tuesday a signed a treaty to join the Eurasian Economic Union, expanding the membership of Moscow-led project to five even as its unity is strained by the market turmoil gripping Russia.
Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Kyrgyzstan agreed to a January 1 inauguration.
