Political Animals and Animal Politics

Editors	Marcel Wissenburg andDavid Schlosberg
Series	Palgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series
Subjects	Animal ethics,human exceptionalism,political philosophy,political theory,environmental politics,political science,social philosophy,political communication[1]
Published	Palgrave Macmillan
Publication date	2014
Media type	Edited collection
Pages	xii+180[1]
ISBN	978-1-137-43461-6

Political Animals and Animal Politics is a 2014edited collection published byPalgrave Macmillan and edited by thegreenpolitical theoristsMarcel Wissenburg andDavid Schlosberg. The work addresses the emergence of academicanimal ethics informed bypolitical philosophy as opposed tomoral philosophy. It was the first edited collection to be published on the topic, and the first book-length attempt to explore the breadth and boundaries of the literature. As well as a substantial introduction by the editors, it features ten sole-authored chapters split over three parts, respectively concerninginstitutional change for animals, the relationship between animal ethics andecologism, and real-world laws made for the benefit of animals. The book's contributors were Wissenburg, Schlosberg, Manuel Arias-Maldonado, Chad Flanders, Christie Smith, Clemens Driessen, Simon Otjes, Kurtis Boyer, Per-Anders Svärd, and Mihnea Tanasescu. The focus of their individual chapters varies, but recurring features include discussions ofhuman exceptionalism, exploration of ways that animal issues are or could be present in political discourse, and reflections on the relationship between theory and practice in politics.

In part,Political Animals and Animal Politics arose from aworkshop that Wissenburg and Schlosberg organised at the 2012European Consortium for Political Research Joint Sessionsconference, though not all attendees contributed to the volume and not all contributors presented at the workshop. Footage of the workshop appeared inDe Haas in de Marathon (The Pacer in the Marathon), a 2012 documentary about the DutchParty for the Animals.Political Animals and Animal Politics was published as part of thePalgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series, edited byAndrew Linzey andPriscilla Cohn.

Reviewers identified the contributions from Driessen, Flanders and Boyer as of particular interest, but challenged the inclusion of chapters focused on the environment. They criticised the book's failure to include contributions from, or sufficiently engage with the work of, the key voices in the politically focused animal ethics literature, such asRobert Garner,Sue Donaldson andWill Kymlicka,Alasdair Cochrane,Kimberly Smith, orSiobhan O'Sullivan. Wissenburg's chapter was identified as the one that engaged most directly with this literature, but his approach was a negative one. Garner has written thatPolitical Animals and Animal Politics should be praised for its trailblazing, but predicted that it would be superseded by stronger collections on the same theme.

The Dutchgreenpolitical theoristMarcel Wissenburg and the American green political theoristDavid Schlosberg^{[note 1]} organised aworkshop entitled "Political Animals and Animal Politics" at the 2012European Consortium for Political Research Joint Sessionsconference, which was held at theUniversity of Antwerp, Belgium, between 10 and 15 April 2012.^[2] The two had been talking for around a year about organising a conference broadly on the theme of "nature, animals and political theory".^[4] The workshop aimed to fill a gap in the political literature on the status of nonhuman animals, something, they claimed, previously considered only at the margins of work otherwise about theenvironment/resource management, or else by those more primarily interested inmoral issues.^[2] Both Wissenburg and Schlosberg presented papers; papers were also presented by Manuel Arias-Maldonado (University of Granada), Susan Boonman-Berson (Wageningen University and Research), Kurtis Boyer (Lund University), Clemens Driessen (Utrecht University), Chad Flanders (Saint Louis University),Robert Garner (University of Leicester), Margareta Hanes (Vrije Universiteit Brussel), Paul Lucardie (University of Groningen), Christopher Neff (University of Sydney), Kaspar Ossenblok (Ghent University), Simon Otjes (Leiden University), Christie Smith (University of Exeter), Mihnea Tanasescu (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) and Catherine Zwetkoff (University of Liège).^{[note 2]} For Schlosberg, the workshop, and the wide range of papers presented, illustrated the "coming-of-age of animal politics as a subfield of political theory".^[4]

The workshop featured a lecture by Michel Vandenbosch, of the Belgian organisationGlobal Action in the Interest of Animals. On the second day, those involved were joined byNiko Koffeman of the DutchParty for the Animals and Karen Soeters of that party's Nicolaas G. Pierson Foundationthink tank. Footage from that day of the workshop, shot by Joost de Haas, was included in the documentary filmDe Haas in de Marathon (The Pacer in the Marathon, 2012).^[5] The film was created by de Haas, who was commissioned by the Nicolaas G. Pierson Foundation. It focuses on the Party for the Animals's first ten years, including interviews with people associated with the party and explorations of the party's public reception. The film premiered on 28 October 2012, during a gathering to celebrate the party's 10th anniversary. It has since been made available in numerous languages.^[6]

Wissenburg and Schlosberg's workshop formed the basis ofPolitical Animals and Animal Politics, acollection edited by Wissenburg and Schlosberg, earlier versions of many of the volume's chapters having been presented at that time.^[5] Originally, the editors had intended to have discussion ofpolitical theory, of movements for animals and of real-world politics, but the final volume was somewhat more theory-based than this.^[4]Political Animals and Animal Politics was published in 2014 byPalgrave Macmillan;^[1] it is part of thePalgrave Macmillan Animal Ethics Series, which is edited byAndrew Linzey andPriscilla Cohn. This interdisciplinary series aims to explore the practical and conceptual challenges posed byanimal ethics.^[7]Political Animals and Animal Politics was published inhardback (ISBN 978-1-137-43461-6),softback (ISBN 978-1-349-68310-9),eBook (ISBN 978-1-349-68308-6), and online (doi:10.1007/978-1-349-68308-6) formats.^[1]

Political Animals and Animal Politics was the first edited collection devoted to the "political turn in animal ethics", and the first "book-length attempt at seeking to define the contours" of this literature.^[8] According toSiobhan O'Sullivan, the book may have been the first time thatpolitical turn in animal ethics—a phrase that had been used at European conferences for a number of years—appeared in print.^[9] This "animal political philosophy" is identified by the editors as an academic literature at the meeting point of animal ethics,political philosophy and real-world (but theory-driven) politics. Wissenburg and Schlosberg posit that this literature, though at one time only a small part of more morally focused animal ethics, has developed into a separate field of enquiry in its own right. They single out two key texts: Robert Garner's 2013A Theory of Justice for Animals (Oxford University Press) andSue Donaldson andWill Kymlicka's 2011Zoopolis (Oxford University Press).^[10] Recognising the editors' identification of the political turn in animal ethics, Garner, writing with O'Sullivan andAlasdair Cochrane,^{[note 3]} argues that the literature is both made distinct and unified by its focus onjustice; contributions to this literature, these authors argue, "imagine how political institutions, structures and processes might betransformed so as to secure justice for both human and nonhuman animals. Put simply, the essential feature of the political turn is thisconstructive focus on justice."^[11]

Political Animals and Animal Politics has three key aims, and, correspondingly, its chapters are split into three sections. These aims are the analysis of three key "innovations" that the editors identify in the book's introduction. The first of these is the move, in animal ethics, from thinking about personal change to thinking about the implementation of rules or norms of conduct at the societal level. The second of these is a possiblerapprochement between animal ethics andecologism (environmental ethics and green political theory). The third is the increased presence of animal protection laws for the benefit of nonhuman animals themselves. Aside from the introduction, the book features ten single-authored chapters: three in Part I: The Politicization of the Animal Advocacy Discourse, three in Part II: The Rapprochement between Animal Ethics and Ecologism, and four in Part III: The Introduction of Laws and Institutions for the Benefit of Animals.^[10][12]

"Rethinking the Human-Animal Divide in the Anthropocene", Manuel Arias-Maldonado

Arias-Maldonado argues that traditional appeals to the value of nonhuman animals have failed to be sufficiently motivating, and that, instead, human/nonhuman relationships are appropriately grounded upon the ideas ofhuman exceptionalism and human domination. These notions, he claims, can be the basis of political transformation for nonhuman animals. He argues that once these ideas are properly understood, they can ground an idea of humansympathy for nonhuman animals, which is just one part of a caring andsustainableAnthropocene. Even if an alternative politics might ultimately be preferable, Arias-Maldonado argues, a change to a focus on sympathy might be useful and realistic as a political strategy.^[13]

"An Agenda for Animal Political Theory", Marcel Wissenburg

In chapter 3, Wissenburg challenges liberal assumptions inanimal rights, including both the "old" liberalism ofTom Regan(left) and the "new" liberalism ofSue Donaldson andWill Kymlicka(right).^[14]

For the purposes of his contribution, Wissenburg takes many standard contentions in animal ethics for granted. However, he challenges mainstream animal ethicists' tendency to adopt the language ofliberalism, which he suggests misconstrues nonhuman animals as individuals and positsfalse dichotomies about their status. This adoption of liberal ideas can come inTom Regan's "old" form or Donaldson and Kymlicka's "new" form. Wissenburg challenges Donaldson and Kymlicka's extension ofcitizenship to nonhuman animals, and instead sketches the outline of an alternative proposal that pays attention to individual animals' modes of being. This he labels, adapting a phrase fromRobert Nozick, "liberalism for humans andfeudalism for animals".^[14]

"Public Reason and Animal Rights", Chad Flanders

Flanders argues that nonhuman animals could be "below" politics, in that they do not have politically considerable interests, or "above" politics, in that they haverights that trump political decision-making processes. Flanders argues that if animals are excluded from basic justice, asJohn Rawls held, they can be defended onmetaphysical grounds (what Rawls refers to as on the basis ofcomprehensive doctrines, as opposed to thepublic reasons which must be used for arguments in the political realm). This is potentially liberating for animal advocates. Nonetheless, Flanders argues, animal issues may be matters of basic justice insofar as they affect humans or that animals themselves have rights. Alternatively, the wrongness ofanimal cruelty may be a "fixed point" in our political reasoning. Flanders concludes that Rawlsianism provides a good starting point for the inclusion of animals in political decision-making.^[15]

"Articulating Ecological Injustices of Recognition", Christie Smith

Smith draws onVal Plumwood to argue that rather than solely think about resituating animals in ethical terms, what is needed is the resituation of humans in ecological terms; both are needed, she argues, as the two tasks are linked. Smith rejects theculture/nature dichotomy, and suggests that apolitics of recognition is an appropriate way to think about relationships. She draws uponfeminist andecofeminist literature to conceive of recognition theory beyondintersubjective self/other relations, allowing recognition beyond the human self. Smith seeks to show that recognition theories should not be considered "soft" or "naive" as accounts of justice, and instead that they offer an appropriate mode for thinking about ecological and animal injustices.^[16]

"Ecological Justice for the Anthropocene", David Schlosberg

Schlosberg's contribution, is partly a response to challenges made to hisDefining Environmental Justice (2007).^[4] Schlosberg aims to step beyond previous accounts ofanimal rights or environmentalism as requirements of justice by deploying a mixedcapabilities/deliberation approach applicable to both ecosystems and nonhuman animals. Schlosberg challenges criticisms of his capabilities approach (specifically, a capabilities approach that moves beyond humans) grounded in the existence of conflicts of capabilities, claiming that a form of deliberative democracy can overcome the problem posed by these conflicts. His mixed account, he claims, provides a form of justice appropriate for thinking about human and nonhuman individuals and collectives in the Anthropocene.^[17]

"Animal Deliberation", Clemens Driessen

In chapter 7, Clemens Driessen argues that the building of a door with acat flap(left) could result from political deliberation between cats and humans,^[18] while, in chapter 9, Kurtis Boyer explores the political motivations of various groups claiming to champion conservation ofpolar bears(right).^[19]

Driessen explores ways in which nonhuman animals might be understood to be engaging in political deliberation. His claim isempirical rather thannormative, as he presents nonhuman animals as already being in political dialogue with humans; rather than arguing that rights should be extended to animals, he calls for a recognition of how interactions with animals have always been political. This is particularly noticeable, he argues, when humans are involved in the development of new technologies, analysing the example (followingBruno Latour) ofGaston Lagaffe building a door in dialogue with his boss and the office cat, and of farmers and cows usingmilking robots. He argues that a recognition of this animal deliberation can lead to more thoughtful forms of both environmentalism and democracy.^[18]

"Animal Party Politics in Parliament", Simon Otjes

Otjes's approach is more empirical than that of many contributors toPolitical Animals and Animal Politics.^[12][20] He examines the Dutch Party for the Animals (PvdD), which,in 2006, won two seats in theHouse of Representatives. Otjes explores whether the PvdD's presence has changed the amount of time more established parties spent on animal issues by examining both parliamentary speeches and motions before and after the introduction of the PvdD members. He finds that established parties began to talk more about animal issues in 2006, and that this could be attributed to conflict between the PvdD and the established parties. Though Otjes allows that his study's relevance may seem limited, he concludes that smaller parties can affect government agenda by remaining focused on their own primary concern.^[20]

"The Limits of Species Advocacy", Kurtis Boyer

Boyer observes the distinction between how nonhuman animals can receive political protectionas individuals andas species. He argues that the latter form of protection is motivated by a desire to preserve human experience of the species rather than the experiences of the nonhuman animals themselves. Politically motivated species advocacy, Boyer argues, is highlyanthropocentric, as advocates present these animals as sharing in particular reveredvirtues; as a result, the likes of habitat and genetic health are the focus of advocates, rather than the nonhuman animals themselves. Using the example ofpolar bear preservation, Boyer illustrates how species advocacy becomes tied up with broader political goals concerning humans and competing visions of the value of animals. He concludes that the advancement of species advocacy can limit the achievement of the goals of theanimal welfare or animal rights movements.^[19]

"Slaughter and Animal Welfarism in Sweden 1900–1944", Per-Anders Svärd

Svärd, taking a more empirical approach than many other contributors,^[12][20] explores laws surrounding animal welfare in early 20th-century Sweden. He seeks to offer an empirical grounding for the argument that animal welfarism is problematic for animals, entrenching harmful use andspeciesism. He analyses all official documentation from theRiksdag from 1900 to 1944 on the subject ofanimal slaughter and welfare drawing uponFoucauldianpolicy analysis andpoststructuralistdiscourse analysis. He conceives of the debates as a politicalproblematisation in which (drawing uponLacanian psychoanalysis) animal cruelty was blamed on certain "other" groups (such asJews andSami). He argues that animal welfarism was not the natural continuation of an old anti-cruelty discourse, but that Sweden's 1937 regulation of slaughter and 1944 animal protection laws served to reconstitute, reaffirm, and expand speciesist relations, paving the way for animal exploitation's expansion.^[21]

"The Rights of Nature: Theory and Practice", Mihnea Tanasescu

Tanasescu explores the idea ofrights for nature, an idea that, though unorthodox, has seen success in implementation. He introduces the concept, with a focus on the differences betweenmoral and legal rights, before examining the particular case of Ecuador's entrenchment of rights for nature in its2008 constitution, which is compared with other real-world cases. He finally addresses what can be learnt from these theoretical and practical considerations. He concludes that much work on the topic is left to be done, but the key lesson to be learnt is the significance of innovation; environmental politics, he claims, should remain both inventive and optimistic.^[22]

External media
Audio
Knowing Animals, episode 14: "Ecological justice and animals with David Schlosberg" David Schlosberg discusses his contribution toPolitical Animals and Animal Politics on theKnowing Animals podcast
Video
Defining Human-Animal Studies, video 14: "The Political Turn in Animal Ethics" Siobhan O'Sullivan defines "the political turn in animal ethics" for theAnimals & Society Institute

Political Animals and Animal Politics was reviewed by Garner forEnvironmental Values, and the philosophers Jeremy David Bendik-Keymer, Josh Milburn, and Dan Hooley forEnvironmental Ethics, thePolitical Studies Review and theJournal of Animal Ethics respectively.^{[note 5]} Garner lamented the absence of many of the key voices in the political theory literature on animal ethics—such as Cochrane, Donaldson and Kymlicka, O'Sullivan,Tony Milligan,Kimberly Smith or Garner himself—in the book, meaning thatPolitical Animals and Animal Politics "takes on the role of an observer of this debate rather than directly contributing to it in a leading sense".^[8] He also felt that the book offered little consideration of the details of the work of these leading theorists, identifying the absence of discussion of Cochrane's interest-based rights approach, a superficial consideration of Regan's account of animal rights, an oversimplification of his own position and a lack of context to understand the respective work of Kimberly Smith and O'Sullivan. He considered Wissenburg's chapter to be the only one that engages with the debate about the political turn in general, but noted that Wissenburg's approach is a negative one; Garner considered this unsurprising, given that Wissenburg is a green political theorist with little sympathy for "animal political theory".^[8]

Bendik-Keymer praised the book as having a "report-from-a-cutting-edge-conference quality", characterising two conceptual divides as shaping the volume: first, the distinction between theories endorsing human exceptionalism and those not; and, second, the disconnect between theory and practice. For him, the essays of part three—effectively threecase studies—illustrated ways that the "actual practice of politics evince psychological and pragmatic concerns that do not fit neatly into normative foundations". The core philosophical debate (about human exceptionalism) takes place in parts one and two. In part one, he suggested, essays assumed (and sometimes supported) human exceptionalism, sometimes framing it as the only justified way to include animals in politics, while human exceptionalism was denied in part two. It is Bendik-Keymer's view, in line with part one but against part two, that one need not reject anthropocentrism to "open up ecological thought". Anthropocentrism, he argued, can be "open to ecological identifications, having humane virtues, and showing responsibility for our behavior", though this is often denied in environmental ethics. Parts two and three, Bendik-Keymer felt, reveal "the need for aviable politics of animals to be grounded in an adequate experience of community". The area of research that the book exposes, he argued, is animal community, and, in particular, whether animals' roles as co-creators of community (though not politics) calls for their recognition as political agents, rather than simply being included in politics through the ethical concern of human political agents.^[23]

Milburn questioned the success of the volume in achieving its second stated goal, concerning rapprochement between animal and environmental ethics; he considered the contributions respectively of Christie Smith, Schlosberg, and Tanasescu to be more clearly in the domain of environmental ethics than animal ethics, questioning the extent to which they belong in a volume about "animal politics".^[12] Similarly, Hooley argued thatPolitical Animals and Animal Politics was "less of a work in the emerging field of animal politics than it is a collection of essays in the field of environmental politics".^[24] Alternatively, he claimed it could be viewed as a mixed work, noting that the contributions from Flanders, Otjes, Boyer and Svärd offered new contributions to the literature on animals and politics. Hooley thought it surprising that few authors engaged with the work of Donaldson and Kymlicka, and was critical of Wissenburg's discussion of the pair, which he claimed was "all too brief and ultimately disappointing".^[24]

Milburn thought that the opening chapters (and introduction) did well to establish the volume, and was happy with the inclusion of the more empirical contributions, given their potential theoretical significance. He picked out the chapters by Driessen, Boyer, and Wissenburg respectively as highlights, suggesting that the contributions of Driessen and Boyer seemed to challenge the volume's second stated goal, and noting that, though it was strong, he disagreed with the claims of Wissenburg's chapter.^[12] Garner highlighted the contributions of Flanders and Driessen, and commended the editors for putting together the book.^[8] Hooley concluded his review by claiming that the book offered something to those interested in the place of animals in politics, but that much of its contents would be of more interest for those looking to read about environmental political theory.^[24]

Garner identifiedPolitical Animals and Animal Politics as the first edited collection devoted to the political turn in animal ethics. Though he claimed that it was likely to be superseded, he argued thatPolitical Animals and Animal Politics should be "welcomed for its trailblazing".^[8] Subsequent collections identified in reviews of the literature in the political turn include Garner and O'Sullivan'sThe Political Turn in Animal Ethics and Andrew Woodhall and Gabriel Garmendia da Trindade'sEthical and Political Approaches to Nonhuman Animal Issues.^[11][25][26] Another publication identified in these reviews is theopen accessjournalPolitics and Animals;^[11][25][26] this published its first issue in 2015 with an "editorial collective" consisting of Boyer, Svärd, Katherine Wayne and Guy Scotton.^[27]

• Donaldson, Sue, and Will Kymlicka (2011).Zoopolis: A Political Theory of Animal Rights. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Garner, Robert (2013).A Theory of Justice for Animals. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Garner, Robert, and Siobhan O'Sulluvan, eds. (2016).The Political Turn in Animal Ethics. London: Rowman & Littlefield International.
• Woodhall, Andrew, and Gabriel Garmendia da Trindade, eds. (2017).Ethical and Political Approaches to Nonhuman Animal Issues. Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54549-3.

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