_(cropped).jpg) Title page of the 1834 edition ofPan Tadeusz byAdam Mickiewicz, the most notable poet amongPoland's Romantic bards |
Polish literature is the literary tradition ofPoland. Most Polish literature has been written in thePolish language, though other languages used in Poland over the centuries have also contributed to Polish literary traditions, includingLatin,Yiddish,Lithuanian,Russian,German andEsperanto. According toCzesław Miłosz, for centuries Polish literature focused more on drama and poetic self-expression than on fiction (dominant in the English speaking world). The reasons were manifold but mostly rested on the historical circumstances of the nation. Polish writers typically have had a more profound range of choices to motivate them to write, including past cataclysms of extraordinary violence that swept Poland (as the crossroads of Europe), but also, Poland's collective incongruities demanding an adequate reaction from the writing communities of any given period.[1][2]
The period ofPolish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and peaked in the second half of the 18th century. Leading Polish Enlightenment authors includedIgnacy Krasicki (1735–1801) andJan Potocki (1761–1815).Polish Romanticism, unlikeRomanticism elsewhere in Europe, was largely a movement for independence against the foreign occupation. Early Polish Romantics were heavily influenced by other European Romantics. Notable writers includedAdam Mickiewicz,Seweryn Goszczyński,Tomasz Zan andMaurycy Mochnacki.
In the second period, many Polish Romantics worked abroad. Influential poets includedAdam Mickiewicz,Juliusz Słowacki andZygmunt Krasiński.
In the aftermath of the failedJanuary uprising, the new period ofPolish Positivism began to advocate skepticism and the exercise of reason. Themodernist period known as theYoung Poland movement in visual arts, literature andmusic, came into being around 1890, and concluded with thePoland's return to independence (1918). Notable authors includedKazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer,Stanisław Przybyszewski andJan Kasprowicz. The neo-Romantic era was exemplified by the works ofStefan Żeromski,Władysław Reymont,Gabriela Zapolska, andStanisław Wyspiański. In 1905Henryk Sienkiewicz received a Nobel Prize in literature for hisQuo Vadis inspiring a new sense of hope. Literature of theSecond Polish Republic (1918–1939) encompasses a short, though exceptionally dynamic period in Polish literary consciousness. The socio-political reality has changed radically with Poland's return to independence. Newavant-garde writers includedJulian Tuwim,Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz,Witold Gombrowicz,Czesław Miłosz,Maria Dąbrowska andZofia Nałkowska.
In the World War II years ofGerman andSoviet occupation of Poland, all artistic life was dramatically compromised. Cultural institutions were lost. Out of 1,500 clandestine publications in Poland, about 200 were devoted to literature.Much of Polish literature written during theOccupation of Poland appeared in print only after the conclusion of World War II, including books byNałkowska,Rudnicki,Borowski and others.[3] The situation began to worsen dramatically around 1949–1950 with the introduction of theStalinist doctrine by theMinister of Culture and ArtWłodzimierz Sokorski. Poland had three Nobel Prize winning authors in the later 20th century:Isaac Bashevis Singer (1978),Czesław Miłosz (1980) andWisława Szymborska (1996). In the early 21st century, yet another writer was awarded the Prize:Olga Tokarczuk (2018).
Almost nothing remains of Polish literature prior to thecountry's Christianization in 966.[further explanation needed] Poland'spagan inhabitants certainly possessed anoral literature extending to Slavic songs, legends and beliefs, but early Christian writers did not deem it worthy of mention in the obligatory Latin, and so it has perished.[1]
Within the Polish literary tradition, it is customary to include works that have dealt withPoland, even if not written by ethnic Poles. This is the case withGallus Anonymus, the first historian to have described Poland in his work entitledCronicae et gesta ducum sive principum Polonorum (Deeds of the Princes of the Poles), composed in sophisticated Latin. Gallus was a foreignmonk who accompanied KingBolesław III Wrymouth in his return from Hungary to Poland. The important tradition of Polish historiography was continued byWincenty Kadłubek, a thirteenth-century Bishop ofKraków, as well asJan Długosz, a Polish priest and secretary to BishopZbigniew Oleśnicki.[1]
The first recorded sentence in thePolish language reads: "Day ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai" ("Let me grind, and you take a rest") – aparaphrase of the Latin "Sine, ut ego etiam molam." The work in which this phrase appeared reflects the culture of early Poland. The sentence was written within the Latin language chronicleLiber fundationis from between 1269 and 1273, a history of theCistercian monastery inHenryków,Silesia. It was recorded by an abbot known simply as Piotr (Peter), referring to an event almost a hundred years earlier. The sentence was supposedly uttered by a Bohemian settler, Bogwal ("Bogwalus Boemus"), a subject ofBolesław the Tall, expressing compassion for his own wife who "very often stood grinding by thequern-stone."[4] Most notable earlymedieval Polish works in Latin and theOld Polish language include the oldest extant manuscript of fine prose in thePolish language entitled theHoly Cross Sermons, as well as the earliest Polish-languageBible of Queen Zofia and theChronicle of Janko of Czarnków [pl] from the 14th century, not to mention thePuławy Psalter [pl].[1]
Most early texts in Polishvernacular were influenced heavily by the Latin sacred literature. They includeBogurodzica (Mother of God), a hymn in praise of theVirgin Mary written down in the 15th century, although popular at least a century earlier.Bogurodzica served as a national anthem. It was one of the first texts reproduced in Polish on a printing press; and so was theMaster Polikarp's Conversation with Death (Rozmowa mistrza Polikarpa ze śmiercią). At that time several Catholic Marian songs were written, with many of them being considered the most notable art pieces of the Medieval polish literature, includingLament of the Holy Cross that presents Mary in more humane and emotional way. Also, various hagiographic legends were created andLegenda o świętym Aleksym (The Legend of the Saint Alexius) is considered the most prominent. The legend treats about the figure ofthe Saint Alexius that chose the path of lifelongasceticism as a sacrifice of worldly goods in the name of God.[1]
In the early 1470s, one of the first printing houses in Poland was set up byKasper Straube inKraków (see:spread of the printing press). In 1475 Kasper Elyan of Głogów (Glogau) set up a printing shop in Wrocław (Breslau),Silesia. Twenty years later, the firstCyrillic printing house was founded at Kraków bySchweipolt Fiol forEastern Orthodox Church hierarchs. The most notable texts produced in that period includeSaint Florian's Breviary, printed partially in Polish in the late 14th century;Statua synodalia Wratislaviensia (1475): a printed collection of Polish and Latin prayers; as well asJan Długosz'sChronicle from the 15th century and hisCatalogus archiepiscoporum Gnesnensium.[1]
With the advent of theRenaissance, the Polish language was finally accepted on an equal footing with Latin. Polish culture and art flourished underJagiellonian rule, and many foreign poets and writers settled in Poland, bringing with them new literary trends. Such writers includedKallimach (Filippo Buonaccorsi) andConrad Celtis. Many Polish writers studied abroad, and at theKraków Academy, which became a melting pot for new ideas and currents. In 1488, the world's first literary society, theSodalitas Litterarum Vistulana (Vistula Literary Society) was founded in Kraków. Notable members includedConrad Celtes,Albert Brudzewski,Filip Callimachus andLaurentius Corvinus.[1]
A Polish writer who usedLatin as his principal vehicle of expression wasKlemens Janicki (Ianicius), who became one of the most notable Latin poets of his time and waslaureled by the Pope. Other writers such asMikołaj Rej,[5] andJan Kochanowski, laid the foundations for the Polish literary language and modern Polish grammar. The first book written entirely in thePolish language appeared in this period – It was aprayer-book byBiernat of Lublin (c. 1465 – after 1529) calledRaj duszny (Hortulus Animae, Eden of the Soul), printed inKraków in 1513 at one of Poland's first printing establishments, operated byFlorian Ungler (originally fromBavaria). The most notable Polish writers and poets active in the 16th century include:
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The literature in the period ofPolish Baroque[6] (between 1620 and 1764) was significantly influenced by the great popularization ofJesuit high schools, which offered education based onLatinclassics as part of a preparation for a political career. The studies of poetry required the practical knowledge of writing both Latin and Polish poems, which radically increased the number of poets and versifiers countrywide. On the soil of humanistic education some exceptional writers grew as well: Piotr Kochanowski (1566–1620) gave his translation ofTorquato Tasso'sJerusalem Delivered;Maciej Kazimierz Sarbiewski, apoet laureate, became known among European nations asHoratius christianus (ChristianHorace) for his Latin writings;Jan Andrzej Morsztyn (1621–1693), an epicurean courtier and diplomat, extolled in his sophisticated poems the valors of earthly delights; andWacław Potocki (1621–1696), the most productive writer of the Polish Baroque, unified the typical opinions of Polishszlachta with some deeper reflections and existential experiences. Notable Polish writers and poets active in this period include:
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The period ofPolish Enlightenment began in the 1730s–40s and peaked in the second half of the 18th century during the reign ofPoland's last king,Stanisław August Poniatowski.[8] It went into sharp decline with theThird and final Partition of Poland (1795), followed by political, cultural and economic destruction of the country, and leading to theGreat Emigration of Polish elites. The Enlightenment ended around 1822, and was replaced byPolish Romanticism at home and abroad.[1]
One of the leading Polish Enlightenment poets wasIgnacy Krasicki (1735–1801), known locally as "the Prince of Poets" andPoland's La Fontaine, author of the first Polish novel calledThe Adventures of Mr. Nicholas Wisdom (Mikołaja Doświadczyńskiego przypadki); he was also a playwright, journalist,encyclopedist andtranslator from French andGreek. Another prominent writer of the period wasJan Potocki (1761–1815), a Polish nobleman,Egyptologist,linguist, and adventurer, whose travel memoirs made him legendary in his homeland. Outside Poland he is known chiefly for his novel,The Manuscript Found in Saragossa, which has drawn comparisons to such celebrated works as theDecameron andthe Arabian Nights.Notable Polish writers and poets of the Enlightenment period include:
Due topartitions carried out by the neighboring empires – which ended the existence of thesovereign Polish state in 1795 –Polish Romanticism, unlikeRomanticism elsewhere in Europe, was largely a movement for independence against the foreign occupation, and expressed the ideals and the traditional way of life of the Polish people. The period of Romanticism in Poland ended with the Tsarist suppression of theJanuary 1863 Uprising, marked by public executions by the Russians and deportations to Siberia.[9]
The literature of PolishRomanticism falls into two distinct periods, both defined byinsurgencies: the first around 1820–1830, ending with theNovember uprising of 1830; and the second between 1830 and 1864, giving birth toPolish Positivism. In the first period, Polish Romantics were heavily influenced by other European Romantics – Their art featuredemotionalism and imagination,folklore, country life, as well as the propagation of the ideals of independence. The most famous writers of the period were:Adam Mickiewicz,Seweryn Goszczyński,Tomasz Zan andMaurycy Mochnacki. In the second period (after theJanuary uprising), many Polish Romantics worked abroad, often banished from the Polish soil by the occupying power. Their work became dominated by the ideals of freedom and the struggle for regaining their country's lostsovereignty. Elements of mysticism became more prominent. Also in that period, the idea of thepoeta-wieszcz (nation's bard) developed. Thewieszcz functioned as spiritual leader to the suppressed people. The most notable poet among theleading bards of Romanticism, so recognized in both periods, wasAdam Mickiewicz. Other two national poets were:Juliusz Słowacki andZygmunt Krasiński. Polish writers and poets of the Romantic period include:
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In the aftermath of the failedJanuary 1863 Uprising againstRussian occupation, the new period ofPolish Positivism—which took its name fromAuguste Comte's philosophy ofPositivism—advocatedskepticism and the exercise ofreason. Questions addressed by Poland's Positivist writers revolved around "organic work," which included the establishment ofequal rights for all members of society, includingfeminists; theassimilation of Poland'sJewish minority; and the defense of the Polish population in the German-ruled part of Poland againstKulturkampfGermanization and thedisplacement of the Polish population by German settlers. The writers worked to educate the public about constructive patriotism, which would enable Polish society to function as a fully integrated "social organism", regardless of adverse circumstances.[10] Poland's Positivist period lasted until the turn of the 20th century and the advent of theYoung Poland movement.
Several positivistic Polish writers' work was considered pivotal for the progress of Polish literature. Among them,Henryk Sienkiewicz received the greatest critical acclaim by being awardedthe Nobel Prize in Literature as the first Polish writer. At first, he was appreciated for his journalism work. Next, he started to publish novellas that were widely admired, includingOrso (a novella about a half-Indian and his partner who work together in a circus and are being physically abused by a circus owner),Bartek the Conqueror (a story of a Polish peasant that is forced to join Prussian army),Janko the Musician (a novella about a sickly boy who is exceptionally talented in music which frightens villagers),The Lighhouse Keeper (a deeply emotional novella treating about nostalgia and loneliness),From the Diary of a Poznań Teacher (a novella that criticizes prussian education system that polish people were forced into), andSachem (a story about town in America that was built on the ruin of former Indian hamlet).[11]Sienkiewicz's novellas were successful and popular, however they were completely overstrided by his novels' excellence. In 1884, 1886, and 1888, he released three volumes of his Trilogy:With Fire and Sword (Ogniem i Mieczem),The Deluge (Potop), andPan Michael (Pan Wołodyjowski), respectively. The books were written "to lift up the heart" of the Polish nation during the era of thepartitions and because of that the epic plot and heroic actions were favored over historical accuracy. Yet, Sienkiewicz tried to preserve the historical context of the books by using the archaic language.[12] The novels also served as descriptions of potential causes of Poland's fall. Having risen to international fame, Sienkiewicz continued to publish novels embedded in historical context. First, in 1896 he publishedQuo Vadis about ancientRome under the rule of emperorNero. The book was written in an extensively detailed way to depict theRoman Empire accurately.[13] Next, he decided to reflect again on Poland's most magnificent historic victories and releasedTheKnights of the Cross (Krzyżacy) in 1900. The novel portrays medieval life in Poland, depicting the ongoing customs of life, and centers its plot on defeating the German Order of theTeutonic Knights. 5 years later, he won a Nobel Prize for his accomplishments (not for a single book) and dedicated his recognition to being a citizen of Poland, which at the time did not exist.
Another prominent figure of Polish Positivism wasBolesław Prus. He debuted as a journalist, but soon he started publishing novellas. Their main motif was simple people who were emotionally hurt. Just as inThe Barrel Organ (1880) Prus portrays a retired lawyer who excelled at his job and became a professional, yet, he suffers from the lack of a lifetime partner. The author symbolically uses the barrel organ as a means of uniting the lawyer with his new neighbors.[14] Prus also published several novels that were the most representative literature pieces of positivistic philosophy. He wrote books likeThe Doll orThe Outpost, which presented complex psychological portraits of the characters, encompassed several naturalistic descriptions of life in 19th-century Polish cities, and disseminated concepts ofsocial equality,feminism, andwork ideology. Especially, the novel "The Doll" became one of the most significant books of Polish literature. Prus depicted 19th-century Warsaw in an extensively detailed way, including thorough descriptions of the architecture, real-life events, social life, and customs, where Polish citizens lived along with Jews. The writer delves into not only the lives of aristocrats and upper-class citizens but also attempts to present the lives of poor and homeless people. Each character of the novel, despite their social class origin, is scrupulously portrayed.[15] The author tries to convey multifaceted aspects of the life of each character, often ambiguously presenting them. By doing this, he preserves the realistic approach that dominated the literature of that time.[16]Prominent writers and poets of Polish Positivism included:
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Themodernist period known as theYoung Poland movement in visual arts, literature andmusic, came into being around 1890, and concluded with thePoland's return to independence (1918). The period was based on two concepts. Its early stage was characterized by a strongaesthetic opposition to the ideals ofits own predecessor (promotingorganic work in the face of foreign occupation). Artists following this early philosophy of Young Poland believed indecadence,symbolism, conflict between human values and civilization, and the existence ofart for art's sake. Prominent authors who followed this trend includedKazimierz Przerwa-Tetmajer,Stanisław Przybyszewski andJan Kasprowicz. The later ideology emerged in conjunction with the socio-political upheavals across Europe such as the1905 Revolution againstNicholas II of Russia, theNorwegian independence, theMoroccan Crisis and others. It was a continuation ofromanticism, often called neo-romanticism. The artists and writers following this idea covered a large variety of topics: from the sense of personal mission of aPole exemplified byStefan Żeromski's prose, through condemnation of social inequality in works byWładysław Reymont andGabriela Zapolska, to criticism of Polish society and Polish revolutionary history byStanisław Wyspiański. In 1905Henryk Sienkiewicz received a Nobel Prize in literature for hispatriotic Trilogy inspiring a new sense of hope. Writers of this period include:[17]
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Literature of theSecond Polish Republic (1918–1939) encompasses a short, though exceptionally dynamic period in Polish literary consciousness. The socio-political reality has changed radically with Poland's return to independence. In large part, derivative of these changes was the collective and unobstructed development of programs for artists and writers. Newavant-garde trends had emerged. The period, spanning just twenty years, was full of notable individualities who saw themselves as exponents of changing European civilization, includingTuwim,Witkacy,Gombrowicz,Miłosz,Dąbrowska andNałkowska (PAL). They all contributed to a new model of the twentieth-century Polish culture echoing its own language of everyday life.[18][19][20]
The two decades ofInterbellum were marked by rapid development in the field of poetry, undivided and undiminished for the first time in over a century. From 1918 to 1939, the gradual and successive introduction of new ideas resulted in the formation of separate and distinct trends. The first decade of Polish interwar poetry was clear, constructive, and optimistic; as opposed to the second decade marked by dark visions of the impending war, internal conflicts within the Polish society, and growing pessimism. The whole period was amazingly rich nevertheless. In 1933 thePolish Academy of Literature (PAL) was founded by a decree of the Council of Ministers of the Republic (Rada Ministrów RP); as the highest opinion-forming authority in the country; it awarded Gold and the Silver Laurels (Złoty, and Srebrny Wawrzyn), the two highest national honors for contributions to literature untilinvasion of Poland in 1939.[21] One of the most prominent poets of the interwar period wasBolesław Leśmian (member ofPAL), whose creative personality developed before 1918, and in large part influenced both Interbellum decades (until his death in 1937). The literary life of his contemporaries revolved mostly around the issues of independence. All Polish poets treated the concept of freedom with extreme seriousness, and many patriotic works had emerged at that time, not to mention a particular variant of a poetic cult ofPiłsudski.
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In the years ofGerman andSoviet occupation of Poland, all artistic life was dramatically compromised. Cultural institutions were lost. The environment was chaotic, and the writers scattered: some found themselves in concentration and labor camps (orNazi-era ghettos), others were deported out of the country; some emigrated (Tuwim,Wierzyński), many more joined the ranks of the Polish underground resistance movement (Baczyński,Borowski,Gajcy). All literary outlets were forced to cease operation. Writers who remained at home began organizing literary life in conspiracy, including lectures, evenings of poetry, and secret meetings in the homes of writers and art facilitators. Polish cities where such meetings were held most frequently were:Warsaw,Kraków andLwów. Writers participated in setting-up of the underground presses (out of 1,500 clandestine publications in Poland, about 200 were devoted to literature). Many fought in the Polish army in exile or resisted theHolocaust in a civil capacity. The generation of theKolumbs, born around 1920, were active during theWarsaw uprising.[22][23][24][25] Best-known representatives of the war years are:
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All texts published under Soviet rules were strictly censored.Much of Polish literature written during theOccupation of Poland appeared in print only after the conclusion of World War II, including books byNałkowska,Rudnicki,Borowski and others.[3] The Soviet takeover of the country did not discourageÉmigrés and exiles from returning, especially before the advent ofStalinism. Indeed, many writers attempted to recreate the Polish literary scene, often with a touch of nostalgia for the prewar reality, includingJerzy Andrzejewski, author ofAshes and Diamonds, describing (according to Communist design)Anti-communist resistance in Poland. His novel was adapted into film a decade later byWajda. The new emerging prose writers such asStanisław Dygat andStefan Kisielewski approached the catastrophe of war from their own perspective.Kazimierz Wyka coined a term "borderline novel" for documentary fiction.[3]
The situation began to worsen dramatically around 1949–1950 with the introduction of theStalinist doctrine by ministerSokorski, on behalf of the increasingly violentCommunist regime, which engaged in gross violations of human rights.[3] In the years 1944–1956, around 300,000 Polish citizens were arrested, of whom many thousands were sentenced to long-term imprisonment. There were 6,000 death sentences pronounced against political prisoners, the majority of them carried out "in the majesty of the law".[26] Fearing for their proper jobs, many writers associated with theBorejsza's publishing empire embraced the Sovietization of Polish culture.[27] In 1953 theZLP Union, run byKruczkowski with a slew of prominent signatories, declared full support to persecution of religious leaders by theMinistry of Public Security. Death sentences were not enforced, although Father Fudali died in unexplained circumstances,[28][29][30] as had 37 other priest and 54 friars already before 1953.[31] Likewise, writerKazimierz Moczarski fromArmia Krajowa (the Home Army), tortured in jail byRomkowski's subordinates for several years and sentenced to death, was pardoned and released onlyat the end of this period.[32]
Despite censorship and political pressure that forced many writers topublish underground or abroad, this era saw the dawning of a new golden era in Polish literature. Particularly in poetry with several influential poets of international fame such asCzesław Miłosz andWisława Szymborska, who were both awarded theNobel Prize in Literature,Tadeusz Różewicz andZbigniew Herbert. Absurdist dramatistSławomir Mrożek was a leading name in the international development ofavant-garde theatre. Journalist and authorRyszard Kapuściński was prominent and highly influential in the genre ofreportage.[33]
Other writers include:
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| Henryk Sienkiewicz (1846–1916) | Władysław Reymont (1865–1925) | Isaac Bashevis Singer (1902–91) | Czesław Miłosz (1911–2004) | Wisława Szymborska (1923–2012) | Olga Tokarczuk (born 1962) |
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